^s 


-.-•-fir  1    . 


I 


Digitized  by  tlie  Internet  Arcliive 

in  2008  witli  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcli  ive.org/details/englisliandbookofOOIatliricli 


A  HAND-BOOK 


THE  E^TGLISH  LANGUAGE, 


FOR    THE    USE    OF 


STUDENTS  OF  THE  UNIYEESITIES  AND 
HIGHER  CLASSES  OF  SCHOOLS. 


R.  G.  LATHAM,  ^l  D.,  F.  R.  S., 

LATE  PEOrESSOa  OP  THE  KSGLISn  LA>"GUAGE  A^'D    LITEEATCKE,   USITEMITV 
COLLEGE,  LOSDOX. 


;UNIV^!,RSIT7] 


NEW   YORK: 
D.    APPLETOX    AXD    COMPANY, 

90,    92   &   9t   GRAND    STREET. 
1-870. 


h 
I87D 


jy^^ 


CON^TEXTS 


PART  I. 

GENERAL  ETIIXOLOGICAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 
CHAPTER  I. 

GER1I.VNIC  ORIGIX  OF  TOE  EXGLISII  LANGUAGE. DATE. 

8ECTI0H  PAGE 

1.  English  language  not  British         .                 ,                 .  .1 

2.  Real  origin  German               ....  1 

3.  Accredited  immigrations  and  settlements      .                 .  .2 

4.  5.  Criticism             .                 .                 .                 .                 .  4, 5 

CILiPTER  IL 

GERMANIC   ORIGIN   OF  THE   ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. ^THE    GERMANIC   AREA    OF   THE 

PARTICULAR  GERMAN3  "WHO  INTRODUCED  IT. EXTRACT  FROM  BED  A. 

6, 7.  Jutes,  Angles,  and  Saxons      .                .  6 

8, 9.  Extract  from  Beda          .                 .                 .                 .  6, 7 

10—13.  Criticism              .....  8—11 

14,15.  Angles           .                 .                 .                 .                 .  11,  12 

16.  Saxons  of  Beda          .                .                .                .                .  12,  13 

17.  Anglo-Saxon  area  .  .  13 
18, 19.  Tlie  Frisians  .  .  .  13,  14 
20.  Anglo-Saxon  area  .            .                                .                .  14 


VI  CONTENTS. 


ClIArTKU  111. 

OV   TllK    UIAI.IXTS    OF   Till;   SAXON    AKEA,    AND    OF   THE   SO-CALLED 
OLD   SAXON. 

SECTION  PAGB 

-n — •>\K  Old  Saxon  aiul  An''lo-Saxon  .  .  10,  17 


CIIAITER  lY. 
AKnxnu-:s  of  the  exglisii  with  the  languages  of  gehmanv  and 

SCANDINAVIA. 

80,31.  Gothic  languages  .                 .                 .13 

32 — 3i.  Divisiona  of  the  Gotliic  stock  .                 .                      18 

35.  Moeso-Gothic           .                 .  .                 .                 ,19 

36.  Old  High  German          .                 .  .                 .                      I'J 
31.  Low  German           .                 .  .                 .                 .19 

38.  Frisian  and  Dutch  .  .  .  .  19 

39.  Platt-Deutsch  .....  20 

40.  41.   Comparison  ....  21 — 23 

CHAPTER  V. 

ANALYSIS    OF   THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. GERM.\NIC    ELEMENTS. 

THE   ANGLES. 

42.  Analysis  .  ....  24 

43 — 54.  Angles — their  relations         .  .  ,  24 — 28 

55, 56.  The  Frisians    .  .  .  .  .         29,  30 

CHArTER,  VI. 

THE   CELTIC   STOCK    OF   LANGUAGES    AND    TIIEUl    RELATIONS   TO    THE 
ENGLISH. 

57.  Branches  of  the  Celtic  stock  .  .  .  3] 

58 — 00.  Structure  of  Celtic  tongues  .  .  .  31 — 33 

li]_03.  TJie  Picts       .....       33—35 


CO^"TEKTS. 


%TJ 


CnAPTEU  Yll. 

THE    AXGLO-NORMAX,  AND    TIIE    LANGUAGES    OF   THE   CLASSICAL   STOCK. 


BECTION 

64.  The  classical  languages 
65 — 67.  Latin  branch 
68,  69.  Isorman  French 


PAGa 

30 

30 — 40 

40,41 


PART  II. 

HISTORY    AXD    ANALYSIS    OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

mSTORICAL   ANO    LOGICAL   ELEMENTS    OF   THE   ENGUSH    L-VXGUAGE, 

To.  Celtic  elements 

71.  Latin  of  first  period 

72.  Anglo-Saxon 

73.  Danish  or  Xorse 

74.  Roman  of  second  period 

75.  Anglo-Xorman  element 

76.  Indirect  Scandinavian  elements 

77.  Latin  of  third  period 

78.  Latin  of  fourth  period 

79.  Greek 
80—82.  Tables 

83 — 90.  Miscellaneons  elements 
91 — 94.  Ilybridism  and  new  -vrords 
95.  Ilistorical  and  logical  analysis 


45 

40 

47 

47 

49 

49 

50 

51 

51 

52 

53 — 55 

55—60 

60—62 

03 


CHAPTER  n. 

THE   RELATIOX   OF    TIIE   ENGLISH   TO   THE   ANGLO-SAXON,    AND    THE 
STAGES   OF  THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE. 


96.  Ancient  and  modern  tongues 

97.  Details 

98.  Stages  of  the  English  language 


04 

65—03 

68 


vm  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  PAOa 

99.  Semi-Saxon    .....  69 

100—103.   Old  Kiiglirili,  &c.          ....  10—12 

101.  Present  tcndeucics         ....  73 


PAllT  III. 

SOUNDS,    LETTERS,    TRONUNCIATIOX,    SrELLING. 
CHAPTER  L 

GENERAL   NATURE  AXD    CERTAIN   rROl'ERTIES   OF   ARTICULATE   SOUNDS. 

105.  Spelling  and  speaking  .  .  .  .77 

106.  Sounds  and  syllables    .  .  .  .  79 

107.  Vowels  .....  79 
103.  Divisions        .....  80 

109.  Sharp  and  flat  sounds  .                 .                 ,  .80 

110.  Continuous  and  explosive  ...  80 

111.  General  statements  ...  81 

112.  The  sound  of  /t              .  .                 .                .  81 

CHAPTER  II. 

SYSTEM   OF   ARTICULATE   SOUNDS, 

113.  Certain  foreign  sounds  .  .  .  .82 

114.  System  of  mutes  .  .  .82 

115.  Lenes  and  aspirates  .  .  .  83 

116.  Fourfold  character  of  mutes         ...  84 

117.  Y  and  w  .  .  .  .  .  84 

118.  119.  Diphthongs  ....  84 

120.  Compound  sounds  .  .  .  .85 

121.  JSTg  .  .  .  .  .  85 

122.  123.  Broad,  slender;  long,  short;    dependent,    independent 

vowels  .  .  .  .  .       86, 86 

124— 126.  System  of  sounds  .  .  .  86,87 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


cnAriER  iiL 


OK    CERTAIN    COMBLNATIOXS   OF   ARTICVLATE   SOV.NDS. 


■  BCTtON 

127.  Sliarp  and  flat  mutes 

128.  Unstable  combinations 

129.  Effect  of  y 

ISO,  131.  Double  consonants  rare 
132.  True  aspirates  rare 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EUrnONY    AND   THE   rEP^UTATION    OF   LETrERS. 


133.  Euphony 

134.  Pei'mutation 


CHAPTER  V. 

ox   TILE    FOEILVTIOX   OF   SYLLABLES. 


135.  Syllabification 


PACK 

88 
89 
89 
89 
90 


92 
9S 


95—97 


CHAPTER  YI. 

ON    QUANTITY. 

136.  Long  and  short  sounds 

137.  Quantity  of  vowels — of  syllables 

138.  Classical  and  English  measurements    . 

CHAPTER  VII. 

ON    ACCENT. 

139.  Place  of  accents    . 

140.  Distinctive  accents 

141.  lunphasis 

CH.\PTER  VIII. 

OKTUOGEAPHV. 

142.  Orthoepy 

143 — 146.  Principle  of  an  aljihabet     . 


98 
98 

99 


101 
101 
102 


103 

103—105 


COiS'TENTS, 


SECTION 

147.  Violations  of  it   . 

148.  Ilules  .  ■     . 
149—151.  Details  of  English 

152.  Insuflicicncy 

153.  Iiiconsiateucy 

154.  Erroncoiisnesa 

155.  Redundancy 

156.  Unsteadiness 

157.  Other  defects       . 

158.  Historical  propriety     . 
150.  Conventional  spelling 


CHAPTER  IX, 

inSTOmCAL   SKETCH    OF   THE   ENGLISH    ALPHABET. 

160 — 166.  riicenician,  Greek,  Roman  stages  .  116 — 124 

166 — 172.  Anglo-Saxon  alphabet  .  .  .         12^1 — 126 

173.  Anglo-Norman  alphabet        ....  126 

174.  Extract  from  Onnulum  .  .  .  127 

175.  Order  of  alphabet  ....  128 


PAG  A 

105 

107 

.  107—109 

109 

109 

.  110 

110 

110 

111 

113 

113 

PART  IV. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ON    THE   PROVINCE   OF   ETyMOLOCY. 

176 — 179.  Meaning  of  term      . 

CHAPTER  II. 

•3N    GENDER. 

180.  Boy  and  (jirl 

181.  il/a/i-servant  and  jMaiJ-servant    . 

182.  183.  Forms  like  gcnitrix 


131—133 


134 
134 
135 


CONTE>,'TS. 


21 


SECTION  PAGH 

184.  Forms  like  dom'tna              ....  130 

185 — 189.  Gcndera  in  English            .                 .                 .  136,  137 

190 — 192.  The  sun  in  his,  glory ;  the  moon  in  her  icane            .  138 

193.  Miscellaneous  forms    ....  139 — 142 


CHAPTER  III. 


THE   MJMBEKS. 

194 — 197.  Xumbcrs  ia  Englisli 

.     143,  144 

198.  Taxle             .                 .                 .-                 . 

145 

199.  Remarks              .... 

145 

200.  Addition  of  -e» 

146 

Pence,  alms,  &c. 

147 

Mathematics 

147 

201.   Children              .... 

149 

202.  Form  in  -en 

150 

203.  Men,  feet,  Ac.      .... 

150 

204.  Brethren,  Ac.                .                 .                 . 

150 

205.  Houses 

152 

206.    Wives,  ic. 

152 

CHAPTER  IV 


ox  TUE  avsES. 

207 — 211.   Nature  of  c:ise3 

.   151—156 

212.  Accusatives 

. 

156 

213.  Datives 

157 

214.  Genitives     . 

,                 , 

157 

215.  Instrumental 

158 

All  the  better 

158,  159 

216.  Detennination  of  cases 

159 

217.  Analysis  of  cases 

. 

160 

218.  Form  in  -s 

CILVPTER  V. 

160 

TUE   PERSONAL   mOXOUNS. 


219,  220.  I,  ice,  Ks,  &e. 
221.    YoH 


162 
162 


XU  CONTENTS. 

SECTION  PAOB 

222.  Mc    .  ,  .  .  .  .  163 

223—225.  Cautious         .  .  .  .  163,  164 

CHAPTER  VI. 

ox   niE   TRUE   REFLECTIVE   PRONOUX   IN   THE   GOTHIC   LANGUAGES,  AND    ON   ITS 
ABSENCE   IN    ENGLKO. 

226,  How  far  found  iu  English      .  .  .  .165 

CHAFTEU  YII. 

TDK    DEMONSTRATIVE   PRONOUNS,    KTO, 

22Y.  Jle,  she,  it         .                  .                 .                 .                 .  166 

228.  She           .....  .         166 

229.  Her,  Mm,  /ti%  its,  &c.      ....  167 

230.  TJicirs      .                .                .                .                .  .167 

231.  Table                .....  168 

232.  These        .                 .                 .                 .                 .  .169 

233.  Tliose               .....  171 

CH^VPTER  VHI. 

TUE   RELATIVE,    INTERROGATIVE,  AND    CERTAIN    OTDER   PRONOUNS. 

234:.    Who,  what,  &c.  .  .  .  .  173 

235.  Same,  &c  .....         173 

230.    Other,  whether  .  .  .177 

CHAPTER  IX. 

ON   CERTAIN   FORUS   IN    -ER. 

2",7 — 239.  Idea  expressed  by -er  .  .  .         179 — ISl 

CILVI^TER  X. 

TliE    COMPARATIVE    DEGREE. 

•14.0.  Fonn  in  -s  .  .  .  .  .         182 

241.  jElder,  <kc.         .  .  .  .  .  183 

242.  Jiather     .  .  .  .  .  .183 


CONTENTS.  xm 

SEOTtOK  '•^°'= 

24o,  21t.  Excess  of  expression         .                 .  .                 •         183 

245—247.  Better      .                .                •  •                •       183—185 

248.  Worse      .                .                 •                •  •                 .185 

249.  2Te>re                 .                 .                 .  •                 •                 185 

250.  Less         .                 .                 •                 •  •                 .185 
251 — 253.  Is^'ear,  &c.                .                 .  .                 • 

254.  Oi'igiu  of  superlative 

CHAPTER  XI. 

rilE  SUFERLAXm;   DEGREE. 

255,  25G.  Former     .                 .                 .  •                 •                 188 
257.  Nearest    .                 .                 •                 •  •                          188 


258.  Kext 


186 
186 


188 


259,  2G0.    Upmost,  itc.     .  .  .  •  •   189.  190 

CHAPTER  Xn. 

TUE    C.VEDIXAL   ^^J^rBEK.S. 

2G1.  Hov.'  far  undeclined  .  .  .  •         191 

CHAPTER  Xin. 

THE  ORDINAL   NUMBERS. 

262 — 2G4.  Seven,  nine,  ten  .  .  •  192 

265,  2GG.  Thirteen,  tlurtu        ....  193 

m 

CHAPTER  XIV. 


194 


THE   ARTICLES. 

2G7.  A,  an,  the        . 

CHAPTER  XV. 

DlillXUTlVEP,    AUGMENTATIVES,    AND    rATKONTMICS. 

208 — 270.  DimJmitives  ....         197—109 

271.  Angnientatives        .  .  .  •  •         200 

272.  Patron jmics        .  .  .  •  200,  201 


SIV  CONTENTS. 


cuapt]:r  xvl 

GEXTII.E   FORiB. 
SECTION  ^  PAGa 

273.    Wales  .....  202 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

O.V   THE   COX.NEXION    BETWEEN     THE   NOUN"   AND    VEKC,    AND   0.\   TJIE   INFLECTION 
OF   TIIE   INFINITIVE   MOOD. 

2'7-l — 281.  Tlie  verb,  how  far  a  noun        .  .  .     203 — 206 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ON  DERIVED  VEKBb. 

282.  Divisions  of  verba  ....  207 

282.  Derivation  .  ...     208,  209 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

ON  TIIE  PERSONS. 

283.  Persons  in  English  ....  210 

284.  285.  Historical  view  .  .  .  .211 

286.  Form  in -<        .  .  .  .  .  212 

287.  T/iou  spakest,  etc.  .  .  .212 

288.  ^Ye  loves  .....  213 

CHAPTER  XX. 

ON   THE   NUMBERS    OF  VERBS. 

280.  Xumbers  in  English  ....         214 

2'JO.  Ran,  run,  <tc.  .  .  .  .  .         215 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

ON    MOODS. 

291—292.  Moods  in  English   ....  216 


CONTENTS. 


XV 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

ON   TENSES   IX   GENERAL. 


BECTIOM 

293.  Strike,  f:truck 

2«J-4 — 296.  "ETvnToy,  &e. 

297.  rvedupliciitioii 

298.  Weak  or  stroii'j 


299.  Sinri,  sancj,  sung 
300—303.  Tables 


CIIArTER  XXIII. 

THE   STRONG   TENSES. 

CHArTER  XXIV. 

THE  VEAK   TENSES. 


CnATTER  XXV. 


ON   CONJUGATION. 


?AGB 

217 

217,  218 

219 

220 


221 
222 — 225 


804.  Stabbed,  &c. 

220 

305 — 307.  Dirisions 

227   228 

300.  Bought,  sought 

228 

309.  Forms  in  -te  and  -ode 

229 

310—312.  Bred,  beat,  &c. 

230 

313.  Leave,  left 

231 

314.  3 fade,  had 

231 

314.    Would,  should,  could 

231 

315.  Aught      .                  .                 •                 • 

231 

316.  Durst,  must,  i'C 

232 

S17.  Tliis  will  do            . 

233 

318.  Ilind 

234 

319.   Yode        .                .                •                • 

234 

320.  Bid 

234 

321,  322.  "Weak  and  strong  conjugations  natural 


235—237 


XVI 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


DEI-ECTrVEXESS   AND    IREEGUI.AIUTV 


SECTION 

323—325.  Irregularity 

32G.  Vital  and  obsolete  processes 

321.  Processes  of  necessity,  «fec. 

328.  Ordinary  processes 

S29.  Positive 

330.  Normal    . 

Sol.   Could 

332.  Qmth      . 

333.  Heal  irrei^ular  verbs  few 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  IMPERSOXAL  VEUES, 

33i,  335.  Me-sccms,  vic-listclh 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

THE  VERB   SUBST.\^TTVE. 


330. 

Not  irregular 

. 

337. 

Was 

. 

338- 

-341.  He  . 

. 

342. 

An 

. 

343. 

Worth     . 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

THE   TEESENT   PAKTICITLE. 

344 

Forms  in  -hirf  . 

. 

345. 

Forms  in  -iing 

. 

PAoa 

238 
240 
241 
241 
242 
242 
243 
244 
244 


246 


247 
247 
248,  249 
249 
250 


251 

252 


CHAPTER  XXX. 


240 
347, 


Forms  in  -en 
348.  Drunken 


THE    PAST   I'AUriCU'LE. 


254 
254 


CONTENTS. 


xvu 


SZCTION 

349.  Forlorn, 

350.  Forms  iu  -cd 

351.  The  pi-efi.v  Y 


PAQB 

255 
255 
256 


CHAPTER  XXXL 


coxirosxTiox. 


352 — 357.  Nature  of  coiiipound3 

358 — 3G1.  Accent 

302.  Obscure  compounds 

363 — 3G5.  Excej^tions 

SG6.  Peacock;  peahern 

3G7.  Nightingale 

3G8.  Improper  compouiuls 

360.  Decomposites 

370.  Combinations 


.       258—261 

261—266 

266 

266,  267,  268 

269 

269 

270 

270 

270,  271 


CHAPTER  XXXH. 

ON    DEUIVATIOX   AXD    IXFLECTIOX. 

371 — 373.  Their  nature  .  . 


CHAPTER  XXXHI. 

ADVXEB3, 


371,  375.  Their  division 

376 — 379.  Adverbs  of  deflection 

380.  Darkling 


276 

277 
278 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 


ox   CEni.UN    ADVEKCS   OF   PL^CK. 


381—384.  Hither,  thither,  ic. 

385.  Hence,  <tc. 

386.  Yonder 

387.  Anon 


279 
2S0 
280 
281 


CHAPTER  XXXY. 

ox  ■WHEX,  THEX,  AXD  XnAX. 


388,  3S9.  Tlieir  origin 


282 


XVI 11 


CONTENTS. 


CIIArTER   XXXVI. 


PKEt'OSmOXS   AND     CONJUXCIIOXS. 
SBCTION  PASS 

390.  Prei^ositions  ....                  283 

391.  Conjiinctuni^  .....         283 

392.  Yen,  No  .                .                .                 .                 .                 283 

393.  PiU-ticles  .                 .                 .                 .                 .283 

cnArxER  XXXVII. 

ON    THE   GRAMMATICAL   POSmON   OF   THE   WORDS   mine   AND    tluHC. 

394 — 107.  E(juiv!ilont  to   meus   and   tuus,    rather   than    possessive 

cases  ....  2S-1— 290 

CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 


ON   THE   COXSirrUTION   of  the   WE^VK   rR^ETERrPE. 


408.  Grimm's  view 

409,  410.  Remarks  of  Dr.  Trithen 


291 
291—293 


PART  V. 

SYNTAX. 
CHAPTER  I. 

ON   SYNTAX   IN    GKNERAL. 


411,  412.  Syntax 

413.  Personification 

414.  Ellipsis 

415.  Pleonasm 

416.  Leugma 

417.  Pros  to  semainwnenon 

418.  Apposition 

419.  CoUectiveness  . 


294 
294 
295 
295 
295 
296 
296 
207 


CONTEXTS,  XIX 

SECrlOPI  PAGB 

420.  Reductioii                 .                 .                 .                 .  .297 

421.  Determination  of  part  of  speech      .                 .                 .  298 
422 — ^124.  Convertibility                 .                  .                  .  29S,  299 

425.  2Vie  Blacks  of  Africa      ....  299 

426.  Noiie  of  your  ifs      .                 .                 .                 .  .300 

427.  Convertible  worils  numerous  in  English         .                 .  300 

CHAPTER  II. 

.SYNT.VX   OF   SUBSTANTIVTiS. 

428.  Rundcll  and  BrUlc/e's               .                 .                 .  .301 

429.  Rigid  and  left                   ....  301 

CnAPTER  III. 

Si'N'T.VX   OF   ADJECTR'ES. 

430.  Pleonasm                  .                 .                 .                 .  .302 

431.  Collocation       .....  302 

432.  Government             •                 .                 .                 .  .         302 

433.  More  wise,  wiser                    .           .                 .                 .  303 

434.  T/t£  better  of  tli£  two               .                 .                 .  .304 

435.  Syntax  of  adjectives  simple             .                .                 .  304 

CHAPTER  IV. 

ST^T.VX   OF   rUONOUXS. 

436.  Pleonasm          .....  305 

437.  Father's,  not  father  his            .                 .                 ,  .         305 

438.  Pleonasm  and  ellipses  allied            .                 .                 .  306 

CIIAI^ER  V. 

TUE   TRUE   PERSONAL   PR0X0UN3. 

439.  Pronoirwn  rcvercntice              ....         307 
4rl0.  Datlvus  ethicus                 .                 .                 .  307 

441.  Reflected  pronoun  ....         307 

442.  Reflected  neuters             ,                 .                 .  308 

443.  Equivocal  reflective  ....         308 


XX  CONTENTS. 

CILU'TEll  YI. 

ON  niE  S^-XTAX  OF  THE  DEMONSTRATn'E  TROXOUXS,  AND  THE  TKONOUXS 

OF  THE  THIRD   rcnsoN. 

SUCTION  FAOI 

iU,  4rl5.  Ilis'andits       ....  310,311 

CIIAI>TER  YII. 

ox   THE   COXSTUUCnOX    OF   TIIE   WORD    Self. 

44C,  417.  Mi/sclj;  Jdmsclf,  &c.         .  .  .  312,  313 

CBLVPTER  VIII. 

ox   THE   POSSESSIVE  PROXOUXS. 

4-18 — ^151.  Ml/  and  mine        ....         314—316 
CHArTER  IX. 

THE   RELATIVE   PROXOUXS. 

452— 45G.  Tlieh-  concord        ....         317,  318 

457.  Ellipsis  ...  .  .318 

458.  Equivocal  antecedent      ....  819 

CHAPTER  X. 

ON   TIIE   IXTERROGATrS'E   PROXOUN. 

459.  4G0.  Direct  and  oblique  questions  .  .  .         820 

CHAPTER  XL 

THE    RECU'ROCAL     PROXOUXS. 

461,  4G2.  Their  construction  .  .  .  322,  323 

CHAPTER  XII. 

THE   IXDETERMINATE   PROXOUXS. 

4G3— 466.  Use  of  eY  .  .  .  .         324,  325 

4G7,  4G8.  Use  of  them      .  .  .  .  .325 


SECTIOH 

460.  A  and  the 


CONTENTS. 
CHAPTER  Xlir. 

THE   iUmCLES. 

CKAPTER  XIV. 

THE   XCilEKALS. 


472 — IT  4.  Tlieir  division 


470.  Their  numbers 

471.  First  two,  and  two  Jirst    . 

CHAPTER  XV. 

ON    VERBS   IX    GEXER.VL. 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

TUE   COXCOED    OF   VERBS. 

475,  47  G.  Ruie3       .... 

477.  It  is  I  your  master  who  command  (commands)  you 

478.  Concord  of  number 

479.  Subject  and  predicate  of  different  uumbers 

CHAPTER  XAai. 

ON   THE   GOVERNilEVr     OF    V£RBS. 


480.  Of  two  kinds 


481.  Dying-day 

482.  /  am  beaten 


CHAPTER  XVin. 


ON   THE   PARTICITLER. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


XXI 


PAoa 
32G 


327 
327 


323,  S29 


330—332 
332—334 

334,  335 

335,  336 


336,  337 


838 


483,  484.  The  infinitive 
185.  The  imperative 


ON  TOE   M00I>3. 


340 
341 


xxi: 


CONTENTS. 


CIIAl'TIT.  ,\X. 

ON    THE   TEXSB5. 
SECTION 

486.  Present       .... 
486,  487.  Trctcrite 

CnAPTER  XXI. 

SYNTAX   OK   TIIK   PEUSOXS    OF   VERBS. 

488,  489.  Tlielr  concord 

CHAPTER  XX  ri. 

ox   TOE   VOICIS    OF   VERBS. 


490.  Hight 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 

ON   THE   AUXILIAUY    VEUDS. 


491.  Tlieir  classification 

492.  I  have  ridden   . 

493.  /  am  to  speak 

494.  lam  to  blame 

495.  I  a)7i  beaten 


CHAPTER  XXIY. 

OF   ADVERBS. 


496,  497.  Their  syntax  simiile 

498.  Termination  -li/ 

499.  To  walk  and  ride 

500.  J'rom  ivhenee,  &c. 


PAoa 
S42 


344 


345 


346—348 
348 
351 
351 
351 


353 

354 
354 


551. 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


601.    Climb  7ip  a  tree 
502.  Fart  of  the  b'xhj 


ON  TRErosmoNS. 


356 
356 


CONTEXTS.  XXUl 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 


ox  COXJUN'CnONS. 


BEOnON  ^^^'^ 

503,  50-t.  Their  uature    ....  357 — 359 

505.  Their  government            ....  359 

506 — 511.  The  subjimctive  mood   .                 .                 .  359 — 3()-l: 

512.  Use  of  that      ....  3Gi 

513.  Succession  of  tenses                 .                 .  3G-1 
614.  Disjunctives     .                 .                                  .  3G5 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

THE  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NEGATn'a 


515.  Its  place 


366 

516.  Its  distribution        .                 .                 •                 •  366 

517.  Two  negatives                  ....  367 

518.  Questions  of  appeal                 ....  867 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

ox   THE    C.^E   ABSOLUTE. 

519.  Its  par    :ipial  character                    .                 .                 .  369 


PART  VI. 

PK.OSODY. 

520.  De;   nation  of  the  word                    .  .                 -                 371 

521,  52>  Importance  of  accent  .  .  •  371 
523 — 5!iG.  Measures  .  .  .  372,  373 
527.  IMctricnl  notation  ....  374 
528—535.  Rhyme  .  .  37-1— 377 
536.  Blank  vci-sc  .  .  •  •  .377 
6*^7,  ''S8.  Last  syllable  indifferent  .  '  .  378 
(   "      to.  Names  of  coinmou  English  metres  379 — 384 


XXIV  CONTEXTS. 


PART  VII. 

DIALECTS    OF    TIIK    EXGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

SECTION  p^Qg 

541.  Saxons  and 'Angles          ....  885 

542 — 544.  Dialects  not  coinciJeut                    .  .                 385,  386 

645,  540.  Traces  of  tlic  Danes                .  .                 .386,  38 Y 

547  ilerciau  origin  of  the  written  English     .  .                 .387 


KOTBB 


893 


AN    INTRODUCTION 


TO    TUE    STUDY    OF 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


PART    I.     • 

GENI-EAL  ETHNOLOGICAL  RELATIONS  OF  THE  ENGLISH 
LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER     I. 


GERMANIC    ORIGIN    OF    THE    ENGLISH    LANGUAGE. DATE. 

§  1.  The  first  point  to  be  remembered  in  the  liistory 
of  tlic  Englisli  language,  is  tliat  it  was  not  the  primitive 
and  original  tongue  of  any  of  the  British  Islands,  nor 
yet  of  any  portion  of  them.  Indeed,  of  the  wJiole  of  Great 
Britain  it  is  not  the  language  at  the  present  moment.. 
Welsh  is  spoken  in  Wales,  Manks  in  the  Isle  of  Man, 
and  Scotch  Gaelic  in  the  Highlands  of  Scotland ;  besides 
which  there  is  the  Irish  Gaelic  in  Ireland. 

§  2.  The  next  point  to  be  considered  is  the  real  origin 
and  the  real  affinities  of  the  English  language. 

Its  real  origin  is  on  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  its 
real  affinities  are  with  certain  languages  there  spoken. 
To   speak   more   specifically,  the  native   country  of  the 


2  GEEMANIC  ORIGIN   OF 

English  language  is  Germany  ;  and  the  Germanic  lan- 
guages are  those  that  are  the  most  closely  connected 
with  our  own.  In  Germany,  languages  and  dialects 
allied  to  each  other  and  allied  to  the  mother-tongue  of 
the  English -have  been  spoken  from  times  anterior  to 
history ;  and  these,  for  most  purposes  of  philology,  may 
be  considered  as  the  aboriginal  languages  and  dialects  of 
that  country. 

§  3.  Accredited  details  of  the  different  immigrations 
from  Germany  into  Britain. — Until  lately  the  details 
of  the  different  Germanic  invasions  of  England,  both 
in  respect  to  the  particular  tribes  by  which  they  were 
made,  and  the  order  in  which  they  succeeded  each  other, 
were  received  with  but  little  doubt,  and  as  little  criti- 
cism. 

Respecting  the  tribes  by  which  they  were  made, 
the  current  opinion  was,  that  they  were  chiefly,  if  not 
exclusively,  those  of  the  Jutes,  the  Saxons,  and  the 
Angles. 

The  particular  chieftains  that  headed  each  descent 
were  also  supposed  to  be  known,  as  well  as  the  different 
locahties  upon  Avhich  they  descended.'  These  were  as 
follows  :— 

First  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — The 
account  of  this  gives  us  a.  d.  449  for  the  first  perma- 
nent Germanic  tribes  settled  in  Britain.  Ebbsfleet,  in 
the  Isle  of  Thanet,  was  the  spot  where  they  landed ; 
and  the  particular  name  that  these  tribes  gave  themselves 
was  that  of  Jutes.  Their  leaders  were  Hengist  and  Horsa. 
'Six  years  after  their  landing  they  had  established  the 
kingdom  of  Kent ;  so  that  the  -county  of  Kent  was  the 
first  district  where  the  original  British  was  superseded 
by  the  mother-tongue  of  the  present  English,  introduced 
from  Germany. 


THE   EXGLISir   L.VXGUAGE.  3 

Second  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — a.  d, 
477  invaders  from  Northern  Germany  made  the  second 
permanent  settlement  in  Britain.  The  coast  of  Sussex 
Tvas  the  spot  whereon  they  landed.  The  particular  name 
that  these  tribes  gave  themselves  was  that  of  Saxons. 
Their  leader  was  Ella.  They  established  the  kingdom  of 
the  South  Saxons  (Sussex  or  SuS-Seaxe) ;  so  that  the 
county  of  Sussex  was  the  second  district  where  the  origin- 
al British  was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue  of  the  pre- 
sent English,  introduced  from  Germany. 

Third  settlement  of  ijivaders  from,  Germany. — a.  d. 
495  invaders  from  Northcn  Germany  made  the  third  per- 
manent settlement  in  Britain.  The  coast  of  Hampshire 
was  the  spot  whereon  they  landed.  Like  the  invaders 
last  mentioned,  these  tribes  were  Saxons.  Their  leader 
was  Cerdic.  They  established  the  kingdom  of  the  West 
Saxons  (Wessex  or  West-Seaxe) ;  so  that  the  county  of 
Hants  was  the  third  district  where  the  original  British 
was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue  of  the  present  Eng- 
lish, introduced  from  Germany. 

Fourth  settle?nent  of  invaders  from  Germany. — a.  d. 
530,  certain  Saxons  landed  in  Essex,  so  that  the  county  of 
Essex  [East-Seaxe]  was  the  fourth  district  where  the  orig- 
inal British  was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue  of  the 
present  English,  introduced  from  Northern  Germany. 

Fifth  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — These 
were  Angles  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk.  The  precise  date 
of  this  settlement  is  not  known.  The  fifth  district  where 
the  original  British  was  superseded  by  the  mother-tongue 
of  the  present  English  was  the  counties  of  Norfolk  and 
Suffolk ;  the  particular  dialect  introduced  being  that  of 
the  Angles. 

Sixth  settlement  of  invaders  from  Germany. — a.  d. 
547  invaders  from   Northern  Germany  made   the   siith 


4  GEEM^V^^IC  OKIGIN  OF 

permanent  settlement  in  Britain.  The  southeastern 
counties  of  Scotland,  between  the  rivers  Tweed  and 
Forth,  were  the  districts  "where  they  landed.  They  were 
of  the  tribe  of  the  Angles,  and  their  leader  was  Ida.  The 
south-eastern  parts  of  Scotland  constituted  the  sixth  dis- 
trict where  the  original  British  was  superseded  by  the 
mother-tongue  of  the  present  English,  introduced  from 
Northern  Germany. 

§  4,  It  would  be  satisfactory  if  these  details  rested 
upon  contemporary  evidence.  This,  however,  is  far  from 
being  the  case. 

1.  TJie  evidence  to  the  details  just  given,  is  not  his- 
torical, but  traditional. — a.  Bcda,^  from  whom  it  is  chiefly 
taken,  wrote  nearly  300  years  after  the  supposed  event, 
i.  e.,  the  lauding  of  Hengist  and  Horsa,  in  a.  d.  449. 

h.  The  nearest  apjH'oach  to  a  contemporary  author  is 
Gildas,^  and  he  wrote  full  100  years  after  it. 

2.  The  account  of  HengisCs  and  Horsa^s  laiiding, 
has  elements  ivhich  are  fictional  rather  than  liistorical — 
a.  Thus  '•  when  we  find  Hengist  and  Horsa  approaching 
the  coasts  of  Kent  in  three  keels,  and  JElli  eifecting  a 
landing  in  Sussex  with  the  same  number,  we  are  remind- 
ed of  the  Gothic  tradition  which  carries  a  migration  of 
Ostrogoths,^  Visigoths,  and  Gepida,  also  in  three  vessels, 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Vistula.''* — Kemblc,  "  Saxons  in  Eng- 
land." 

h.  The  murder  of  the  British  chieftains  by  Hengist 
is  told  totidein  verbis,  by  Widukind^  and  others,  of  the 
Old  Saxons  in  Thuriugia. 

c.  GeoJGfry  of  Monmouth^  relates  also,  how  "Hengist 
obtained  from  the  Britons  as  much  land  as  could  be 
enclosed  by  an  ox-hide ;  then,  cutting  the  hide  into 
thongs,  enclosed  a  much  larger  space  than  the  grantors 
intended,  on  which  he  erected  Thong  Castle — a  tale  too 


THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  5 

familiar  to  need  illustration,  and  wliicli  runs  throualiout 
the  mytlius  of  many  nations.  Among  the  Old  Saxons, 
tlic  tradition  is  in  reality  the  same,  though  recorded  Avith 
a  slight  variety  of  detail.  In  their  story,  <a  lapfuU  of 
earth  is  purchased  at  a  dear  rate  from  a  Thuringian ; 
the  companions  of  the  Saxon  jeer  him  for  his  imprudent 
bargain ;  but  he  sows  the  purchased  earth  upon  a  large 
space  of  ground,  Avhich  he  claims,  and,  by  the  aid  of  his 
comrades,  ultimately  wrests  it  from  the  Thuringians." 
— -Kemble,  "  Saxons  in  England." 

3.  There  is  direct  evidejice  in  favour  of  their  having 
been  German  tribes  in  England  anterior  to  a.  d.  447. — a. 
At  the  close  of  the  Marcomannic  war,''  Marcus  Anto- 
ninus transiDlanted  a  number  of  Germans  into  Britain. 

b.  Alemannic  auxiliaries  served  along  with  Roman 
legions  under  Valentinian.^ 

c.  The  Notitia  iitriusque  Imperii,^  of  which  tlie  latest 
date  is  half  a  century  earlier  than  the  epoch  of  Hengist, 
mentions,  as  an  officer  of  state,  the  Comes  liltoris  Sax- 
onici  per  Britannias ;  his  government  extending  along 
the  coast  from  Portsmouth  to  the  Wash. 

§  5.  Inference. — As  it  is  nearly  certain,  that  449 
A.  D.  is  not  the  date  of  the  first  introduction  of  German 
tribes  into  Britain,  Ave  must  consider  that  the  displace- 
ment of  the  original  British  began  at  an  earlier  period 
than  the  one  usually  admitted,  and,  consequently,  that  it 
was  more  gradual  than  is  usually  supposed. 

Perhaps,  if  we  substitute  the  middle  of  the  fourth, 
instead  of  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century,  as  the  epoch  of 
the  Germanic  immigrations  into  Britain,  wc  shall  not  bo 
far  from  the  truth. 


GEliMAJN'IC   UKICIN   OF 


CHAPTER  II. 

OEUMANIC  ORIGIN  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LAN  BUAGE. THE  GER- 
MANIC AREA  OF  THE  PARTICULAR  GERMANS  WHO  INTRO- 
DUCED   IT. EXTRACT    FROM    BEDA. 

§  G.  Out  of  the  numerous  tribes  and  nations  of  Ger- 
many, iJirce  have  been  more  especially  mentioned  as  tbc 
chief,  if  not  the  exclusive,  sources  of  the  present  English 
population  of  Great  Britain.  These  are  the  Jatcs,  the 
Saxons,  and  the  Angles. 

§  7.  Now,  it  is  by  no  means  certain  that  tliis  ■was  the 
case.  On  the  contrary,  good  reasons  can  be  given  for 
believing  that  the  Angles  and  Saxons  were  the  same 
people,  and  that  no  such  nation  as  the  Jutes  ever  left 
Germany  to  settle  in  Great  Britain. 

§  8.  The  chief  authority  for  the  division  of  the  Ger- 
man invaders  into  the  three  nations  just  mentioned  is 
Beda ;  and  the  chief  text  is  the  following  extract  from 
his  "  Ecclesiastical  History."  It  requires  particular 
attention,  and  will  form  the  basis  of  much  criticism,  and 
frequently  be  referred  to. 

"  Advenerunt  autem  de  tribus  Germanirc  populis  for- 
tloribus,  id  est  Saxonibus,  Anglis,  Jutis.  De  Jutarum 
origine  sunt  Cantuarii,  et  Victuarii,  hoc  est  ea  gens  qua; 
Vcctam  tenet  insulam  ct  ca  quoo  usque  hodic  in  pro- 
viucia  Occidcntalium  Saxonum  Jutarum  natio  nomi- 
natur,     posita     contra     ipsam    insulam    Vectam.       Do 


THE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  7 

Saxonibus,  id  est,  ca  rcgionc  qua)  nunc  Antiquorum 
Saxonum  cognominatur,  venerc  Oricntales  Saxones,  Me- 
ridiani  Saxones,  Occidui  Saxones.  Porro  do  Anglis  hoc 
est  de  ilia  patria  qujB  Angulus  dicitur,  et  ab  illo  tem- 
pore usque  hodie  manere  desertus  inter  provincias  Ju- 
tarum  et  Saxonum  perliibetur,  Orientales  Angli,  Mc- 
ditcrranei  Angli,  Merci,  tota  Northanhymbrorum  pro- 
genies, id  est  illarum  gentium  qute  ad  Boream  Humbri 
fluminis  inhabitant,  cuetcrique  Anglorum  populi  sunt 
orti." — "  Historia  Ecclesiastica,"  i.  15, 

§  0.  This  was  -written  about  a.d.  731,  131  years 
after  the  introduction  of  Christianity,  and  nearly  300 
afler  the  supposed  landing  of  Ilengist  and  Horsa  in 
A.D.  449. 

It  is  the  first  passage  which  contains  the  names  of 
either  the  Angles  or  the  Jutes.  Gildas,  who  wrote  more 
than  150  years  earlier,  mentions  only  the  Saxons — '•  foro- 
cissimi  illi  nefandi  nominis  iSaxones" 

It  is,  also,  the  passage  which  all  subsequent  writers 
have  either  translated  or  adopted.  Thus  it  re-appears  in 
Alfred,  and  again  in  the  Saxon  Chronicle.'" 


"  Of    Jotum     comon    Cantware  From   the   Jutes   came    the   ia- 

"  and     "Wihtware,      ])£et     is     seo  habitants   of  Kent  and  of  Wi"-ht, 

"  maeiaS   ]>e  nu  earda}?  on  Wiht,  that  is,  the  race  that  now  dwells 

"  and  fajt  cynn    on   West-Sexnm  in  Wight,  and  that  tribe  amongst 

"  5e     man     gj-t     haet     Iiitnacyuii,  tlie     West-Saxons    which    is    yet 

"  Of    Eald-Seaxum     comon    East-  called  the  Jute  tribe.     From  the 

"  Seaxan,     and    SuS-Seaxan     and  Old-Saxons     came    the    East-Sax- 

"  West-Seaxaa      Of     Angle     co-  ons,  and  South-Saxons,  and  West- 

"  mon  (se    a    siSSan   stod  westig  Saxons.      From  the   Angles,   land 

"  betwix     Iiitum     and     Seaxum)  (which    has    since     always     stood 

**  East  -  Englc,         Middel  -  Anglo,  waste  betwixt  the  Jutes  and  Sax- 

•*  Mcarce,     and      eallc     NorSym-  ons)  came   the  East- Angles,  Mid- 

"  brs\. '  die-Angles,  Mercian?,  an'l  all  tlio 

Northumbrians. 


8  GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF 

§  10.  A  portion  of  these  extracts  -will  now  be  sub- 
mitted to  criticism ;  tliat  portion  being  the  statement 
concerning  the  Jutes. 

The  ■words  usque  Jtodie — Jutarum  natio  nominatu? 
constitute  contemporary  and  unexceptionable  evidence  to 
the  existence  of  a  people  with  a  name  like  that  of  the 
Juies  in  the  time  of  Beda — or  a.d.  731. 

The  exact  name  is  not  so  certain.  The  term  Jut- 
nacyn  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  is  in  favour  of 
the  notion  that  it  began  "with  the  sounds  of  j  and  u^  in 
other  words  that  it  was  Jut. 

But  the  term  Geatum,  which  we  find  in  Alfred,  fiivours 
the  form  in  g  followed  by  ea. 

Thirdly,  the  forms  Wihticare,  and  Wihttan,  suggest 
the  likelihood  of  the  name  being  Wiht. 

Lastly,  there  is  a  passage  in  Asserius ' '  which  gives 
us  the  form  Gioith—''  Mater "  (of  Alfred  the  Great) 
"  quoque  ejusdem  Osburgh  nominabatur,  religiosa  nimium 
foemina,  nobilis  ingenio,  nobihs  et  genere ;  qure  erat 
filia  Oslac  famosi  pincernae  ^thelwulf  regis  ;  qui  Oslac 
Gothus  erat  natione,  ortus  enim  erat  de  Gothis  et 
Jutis  ;  de  semine  scilicet  Stuf  et  Wihtgur,  duorum  fratrum 
et  etiam  comitum,  qui  accepta  potestate  Vectis  insul^e 
ab  avunculo  suo  Cerdic  rege  et  Cynric  filio  suo,  conso- 
brino  eorum,  paucos  Britoncs  ejusdem  insuljB  accolas, 
quos  in  ea  invenire  potuerant,  in  loco  qui  dieitur, 
Gwithgarahurgh  occiderunt,  ccetcri  enim  accolse  ejusdem 
insulae  ante  sunt  occisi  aut  exules  aufugerant." — Asserius, 
"  De  Gestis  Alfredi  Regis." 

Now,  Gwith-gara-hurgh  means  the  hurg  or  town  oj 
the  With-icare  ;*^  these  being,  undoubtedly,  no  Germans 
at  all,  but  the  native  Britons  of  the  Isle  of  Wight 
(Vectis),  whose  designation  in  Latin  would  be  Vccti- 
colcc  or  Vecticn-ses, 


THE  ENGLISH  LAXGUAGE.  9 

Tills  being  the  case,  liow  can  tliey  be  descended  from 
German  or  Danish  Jutes  ?  and  how  can  we  reconcile  the 
statement  of  Beda  with  that  of  Asser  ? 

§  11.  The  answer  to  this  will  be  given  after  another 
fact  has  been  considered. 

Precisely  the  same  confusion  between  the  sounds  of 
7^',  J,  g,  io,  ccB,  71,  and  i,  which  occurs  with  the  so-called 
Jutes  of  the  Isle  of  "Wight,  occurs  with  the  Jutlanders 
(if  the  peninsula  of  Jutland.  The  common  forms  arc 
Jutland,  Jute,  Jutones,  and  Jutenses,  but  they  are  not 
the  only  ones.  In  a.  d.  952,  we  find  "  Dania  cismarina 
quam  Yitland  mco\x.  appellant." — '•  Annales  Saxonici.'"-'' 

§  12.  Putting  these  facts  together  I  adopt  the  evi- 
dence of  Asser  as  to  the  Gwithware  being  British,  and 
consider  them  as  simple  Vecti-colcc,  or  inhabitants  of  the 
Isle  of  Wight.  They  are  also  the  Vectuarli  of  Beda, 
the  Wihtware  of  the  Saxon  Chronicle,  and  the  Wiht- 
scBtan  of  Alfred. 

The  Jutes  of  Hampshire—?',  e.,  the  "  Jutarum  natio — 
posita  contra  ipsam  insulam  Vectam,"  and  the  Jutna- 
C1/71,  I  consider  to  have  been  the  same  ;  except  that  they 
had  left  the  Isle  of  Wight  to  settle  on  the  opposite  coast ; 
probably  flying  before  their  German  conquerors,  in  which 
case  they  would  be  the  exides  of  Asser. 

The  statement  of  Beda,  so  opposed  to  that  of  Asser, 
I  explain  by  supposing  that  it  arose  out  of  an  inaccurate 
inference  drawn  from  the  similarity  of  the  names  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  since 
we  have  seen  that  in  both  cases,  there  was  a  similar  con- 
fusion between  the  syllables  Jut-  and  Vit-.  This  is  an 
error  into  which  even  a  careful  writer  might  fall.  That 
Beda  had  no  authentic  historical  accounts  of  the  conquest 
of  Britain,  wc  know  from  his  own  statements  in  the 
Preface  to  his  Ecclesiastical  History,'^  and  that  he  par 
2- 


10  GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OP 

tially  ti'icd  to  make  up  for  the  Avant  of  them  by  infe- 
rence is  exceedingly  likely.  If  so,  what  ■syould  be  more 
natural  than  for  him  to  conclude  that  Jutes  as  -vyell  as  An* 
glcs  helped  to  subdue  the  country.  The  fact  itself  waa 
probable  ;  bcsjdcs  which  he  saw  at  one  and  the  same  time, 
in  England  Vitcc  (called  also  Jatai),  in  immediate  contact 
Avith  Saxons*  and  on  the  continent  Jut(B  (called  also  Vita) 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Anglest  and  Saxons.  Is  it  sur- 
prising that  he  should  connect  them  ? 

§  13.  If  the  inhabitants  of  the  Isle  of  Wight  were 
really  Jutes  from  Jutland,  it  is  strange  that  there  should 
be  no  traces  of  the  difference  which  existed,  then  as  now, 
between  them  and  the  proper  Anglo-Saxons — a  differ- 
ence which  was  neither  inconsiderable  nor  of  a  fleetincj 
nature. 

The  present  Jutlanders  are  not  Germans  but  Danes, 
and  the  Jutes  of  the  time  of  Beda  were  most  probably 
the  same.  Those  of  the  11th  century  were  certainly 
so,  "  Primi  ad  ostium  Baltici  Sinus  in  australi  ripa  versus 
nos  Dani,  quos  Juthas  appellant,  usque  ad  Sliam  lacum 
habitant."  Adamus  Bremensis,'^  '•  De  Situ  Danise"  c. 
221.     Also,  "  Et  prima  pars  Daniaj,  quae  Jutland' dicitur, 

ad  Egdoramt  in  Boream  longitudine  pretenditur in 

eum  angulum  qui  Windila  dicitur,  ubi  Jutland  finem 
habet,"  c.  208. 

At  the  time  of  Beda  they  must,  according  to  the  re- 
ceived traditions,  have  been  nearly  300  years  in  pos- 
session of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  a  locality  as  favourable 
for  the  preservation  of  their  peculiar  manners  and  cus- 
toms as  any  in  Great  Britain,  and  a  locality  wherein  we 
have  no  evidence  of  their  ever  having  been  disturbed. 
Nevertheless,  neither  trace  nor  shadow  of  a  trace,  either 

*  la  nampsliire.  f  In  Northern  Germany. 

X  The  Ejdcr. 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE.  11 

ia  early  or  motkrn  times,  has  ever  been  discovered  of  tlieir 
sepai'ate  nationality  and  language  ;  a  fact  whicli  stands 
in  remarkable  contrast  with  the  very  numerous  traces 
which  the  Danes  of  the  9th  and  10th  century  left  behind 
them  as  evidence  of  their  occupancy. 

§  14.  The  words  England  and  English  arc  derived 
from  the  Angles  of  Beda.  The  words  Sussex,  Essex, 
Middlesex  and  Wessex,  from  his  Saxo7is.  No  objection 
lies  against  this  ;  indeed  to  deny  that  populations  called 
Angle  and  iSaxon  occupied  EnglaJid  and  spoke  the 
Anglo-Saxon  language  would  display  an  unnecessary  and 
unhealthy  scepticism.  The  real  question  concerning  these 
two  words  consists  in  the  relation  which  the  popula- 
tions to  which  they  were  applied  bore  to  each  other. 
And  this  question  is  a  difficult  one.  Did  the  Angles 
speak  one  language,  whilst  the  Saxons  spoke  another  ? 
or  did  they  both  speak  dialects  of  the  same  tongue? 
"Were  these  dialects  slightly  or  widely  different?  Can 
■RC  find  traces  of  the  difference  in  any  of  the  present 
provincial  dialects  1  Are  the  idioms  of  one  country  of 
Angle,  whilst  those  of  another  are  of  Saxon  origin? 
Was  the  Angle  more  like  the  Danish  lan";ua;:;e,  whilst 
the  Saxon  approached  the  Dutch  ?  None  of  these  ques- 
tions can  be  answered  at  present.  They  have,  however, 
been  asked  for  the  sake  of  exhibiting  the  nature  of  the 
subject. 

§  15.  The  extract  from  Beda  requires  further  re- 
marks. 

Tlie  Angles  of  Beda. — The  statement  of  Beda  re- 
specting the  Angles,  like  his  statement  concerning  the 
Jutes,  reappears  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  and  in 
Alfred. 

Ethelwcard  "^  also  adopts  it : — "  Anglia  vetus  sita  est 
inter  Saxones  et  Giotos,  habens   oppiduiu  capitals  quod 


12  GERMANIC  ORIGIN  OF 

scrmone  Saxonico  Slesicic  nuncupatur,  secundum  veif' 
Danos  IlaUiahyP 

Nevertheless,  it  is  exceptionaLle  and  unsatisfactory  ; 
and  like  the  previous  one,  in  all  probability,  an  incorrect 
inference  founded  upon  the  misinterpretation  of  a  name. 

In  tlic  ciglith  century  there  was,  and  at  the  present 
moment  there  is,  a  portion  of  the  duchy  of  Sleswick 
called  Anglen  or  the  corner.  It  is  really  what  its  name 
denotes,  a  triangle  of  irregular  shape,  formed  by  the 
Slie,  the  firth  of  Flcnsborg,  and  a  line  drawn  from  Flens- 
borg  to  Sleswick.  It  is  just  as  Danish  as  the  rest  of 
the  peninsula,  and  caimot  be  shown  to  have  been  occupied 
by  a  Germanic  population  at  all.  Its  area  is  less  than 
that  of  the  county  of  Rutland,  and  by  no  means  likely 
to  have  supplied  such  a  population  as  that  of  the  Angles 
of  England.  The  fact  of  its  being  a  desert  at  the  time  of 
Beda  is  credible  ;  since  it  formed  a  sort  of  Marck  or 
Debatable  Ground  between  the  Saxons  and  Slavonians 
of  Holstein,  and  the  Danes  of  Jutland. 

Now  if  we  suppose  that  the  real  Angles  of  Germany 
were  cither  so  reduced  in  numbers  as  to  have  become  an 
obscure  tribe,  or  so  incorporated  with  other  populations 
as  to  have  lost  their  independent  existence,  we  can  easily 
see  how  the  similarity  of  name,  combined  with  the  geo- 
graphical contiguity  of  Anglen  to  the  Saxon  frontier, 
might  mislead  .even  so  good  a  writer  as  Beda,  into  the 
notion  that  he  had  found  the  country  of  the  Arigles  in  the 
Angulus  (Anglen)  of  Sleswick. 

The  true  Angles  were  the  descendants  of  the  Angli 
of  Tacitus.  Who  these  were  will  be  investigated  in  §§  47 
—54. 

2  IG.  The  Saxons  of  Beda. — The  Saxons  of  Beda 
reached  fi-om  the  country  of  tlie  Old  Saxons*  on  tha 
*  See  §§  21—29. 


THE   ENGLISH   LAl^'Of^i^l'  ,  13      JJ 

Lippc,  in  Westphalia,  to  that  of  the  l^SittUlbliij^iali* 
Saxons  between  the  Elbe  and  Eyder ;  and  nearly, 
but  not  quite,  coincided  with  the  present  countries  of 
Hanover,  Oldenburg,  AVestphaUa,  and  part  of  Ilolsteiu. 
This  we  may  call  the  Saxorij  or  (as  reasons  Avill  be  given 
for  considering  that  it  nearly  coincided  with  the  country 
of  the  Angles)  the  Anglo-iSaxoti  area. 

§  17.  River-system  and  sea-board  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
area. — As  the  invasion  of  England  took  place  by  sea, 
Ave  must  expect  to  find  in  the  invaders  a  maritime  popula- 
tion. Tliis  leads  to  the  consideration  of  the  physical 
character  of  that  part  of  Germany  which  they  occupied. 
And  here  comes  a  remarkable  and  unexpected  fact. 
The  line  of  coast  between  the  Rhine  and  Elbe,  the  line 
which  in  reasoning  a  pj'iori,  we  should  fix  upon  as  the 
most  likely  tract  for  the  bold  seamen  who  wrested  so 
large  an  island  as  Great  Britain  from  its  original  oc- 
cupants (changing  it  from  Britain  to  England),  to 
have  proceeded  from,  is  not  the  country  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxons.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  the  country  of  a  similar 
but  diiferent  section  of  the  Germanic  population,  a  section 
which  has  not  received  the  attention  from  the  English 
historian  which  it  deserves.  The  country  in  question  is 
the  area  of — 

§  18.  Tlie  Frisians. — At  the  present  moment  the 
language  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Friesland  is  materially 
different  from  that  of  the  other  parts  of  the  kingdom 
of  Holland.  In  other  words  it  is  not  Dutch.  Neither 
is  it  German  —  although,  of  course,  it  resembles 
both  languages.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  more  like 
the  English  than  any  other  language  or  dialect  in  Ger- 
many is. 

It  is  a  language  of  considerable  antiquity,    and   al- 
*  Saxons  North  of  the  Elbe  (Alh^i). 


11  GERMANIC   ORIGIN   OF 

though  at  present  it  is  spoken  by  the  country-people 
only,  it  possesses  a  considerable  literature.  There  is 
the  Middle  Frisian  of  Gysbert  Japicx/^  and  the  Old 
Frisian  of  the  Frisian  Laws.'^  The  older  the  specimen 
of  the  Frisian  language  the  more  closely  does  it  show  its 
affinity  to  the  English ;  hence  the  earliest  Frisian  and 
the  Anglo-Saxon  are  exceedingly  alike.  Nevertheless 
they  diftcr. 

§  19.  The  Frisian  "was  once  spoken  over  a  far  greater 
area  than  at  present.  It  was  the  original  language  of 
almost  all  Holland.  It  was  the  language  of  East  Fries - 
land  to  a  late  period.  It  was,  probably,  the  language 
if  the  ancient  Chauci.  At  the  present  time  (besides 
Friesland)  it  survives  in  Heligoland,  in  the  islands  be- 
tween the  Ems  and  Weser,  in  part  of  Sleswick,  and  in  a 
few  localities  in  Oldenburg  and  Westphalia. 

Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  original  Frisian,  ex- 
tending to  an  uncertain  and  irregular  distance  inland, 
lay  between  the  Saxons  and  the  sea,  and  stretched  from 
the  Zuyder  Zee  to  the  Elbe  ;  a  fact  which  would  leave 
to  the  latter  nation  the  lower  Elbe  and  the  Weser  as 
their  water-system :  the  extent  to  which  they  were  in 
direct  contact  with  the  ocean  being  less  than  we  arc  pre- 
pared to  expect  from  their  subsequent  history. 

On  the  other  hand  the  a  priori  probabilities  of  there 
being  Frisians  as  well  as  Anglo-Saxons  amongst  the  con- 
querors of  Great  Britain  are  considerable. — See  §§  55, 
56. 
■    §  20.  The  Anglo-Saxon  area  coincided — 

1.  Politically. — With  the  kingdom  of  Hanover,  the 
duchy  of  Oldenburg,  and  parts  of  Westphalia  and 
Holstcin. 

2.  Physically. — With  the  basin  of  the  Weser. 

It  was  certainly  from  llic  Anglo-Saxon,  and  probably 


TUE   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  15 

from  a  part  of  tlie  Frisian  area  tLat  Great  Britain  -was 
first  invaded. 

Tins  is  as  much  as  it  is  safe  to  say  at  present.  Tlio 
preceding  chapter  investigated  the  date  of  the  Germanic 
migration  into  Britain;  the  present  has  determined  the 
area  from  -which  it  "went  forth. 


16  THE  DIALECTS  OF 


CHAPTER   III. 

OF     TIIH     DIALECTS     OF     THE     SAXON     AREA,     AND     OF     THE     SO- 
CALLED     OLD     SAXON. 

§  21.  The  area  occupied  by  the  Saxons  of  Germany 
has  been  investigated ;  and  it  now  remains  to  ask,  how 
far  the  language  of  the  occupants  was  absolutely  iden- 
tical throughout,  or  how  far  it  fell  into  dialects  or  sub- 
dialects. 

There  were  at  least  two  divisions  of  the  Saxon ;  (1st) 
the  Saxon  of  which  the  extant  specimens  are  of  English 
origin,  and  (2nd),  the  Saxon  of  which  the  extant  spe- 
cimens are  of  Continental  origin.  We  will  call  these 
at  present  the  Saxon  of  England,  and  the  Saxon  of  the 
Continent. 

§  22.  Respecting  the  Saxon  of  England  and  the  Saxon 
of  the  Continent,  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that 
the  first  was  spoken  in  the  northern,  the  second  in  the 
southern  portion  of  the  Saxon  area,  i.  e.,  the  one  in  Hano- 
ver and  the  other  in  Westphalia,  the  probable  boundaries 
between  them  being  the  line  of  highlands  between  Os- 
naburg  and  Paderborn. 

§  23.  Respecting  the  Saxon  of  England  and  the  Saxon 
of  the  Continent,  there  is  good  reason  for  believing  that, 
whilst  the  former  was  the  mother-tongue  of  the  Angles 
and  the  conquerors  of  England,  the  latter  was  that  of  the 
Cherusci  of  Arminius,  the  conquerors  and  the  annihila- 
tors  of  the  legions  of  Varus. '^ 

S   24.   Respecting    the    Saxon   of   England    and    the 


THE   SAXON   AREA.  17 

Saxon  of  the  Continent,  it  is  a  fact  tliat,  wliilst  we  have 
a  full  literature  in  the  former,  "we  have  but  fragmentary 
specimens  of  the  latter — these  being  chiefly  the  follow- 
ing: (1)  the  Heliancl,"  (2)  Ilildubrand  and  Hathu- 
brant,*^'  (3)  the  Carolinian  Psalms."'' 

§  25.  The  preceding  points  have  been  predicated 
respecting  the  difference  between  the  two  ascertained 
Saxon  dialects,  for  the  sake  of  preparing  the  reader  for 
the  names  by  Avhich  they  are  knoT\Ti. 


THE    SAXON    OF    TFTE     CONTINENT 

TUE    SAXON    OF   ENGLAND 

MAY    BE    CALLED 

5L\Y    BE    CALLED 

1. 

Contiaental  Saxon. 

Insular  Saxon. 

2 

German  Saxon. 

Enghsh  Saxon. 

S. 

Wcstpbalian  Saxon. 

Hanoverian  Saxon. 

4. 

South  Saxon. 

North  Saxon. 

5. 

Cheruscan  Saxon. 

Angle  Saxon. 

6. 

Saxon  of  the  HeliaiiJ. 

Saxon  of  Beowulf.  23 

§  26.  The  Saxon  of  England  is  called  Anglo-Saxon ; 
a  term  against  which  no  exception  can  be  raised. 

§  27.  The  Saxon  of  the  Continent  used  to  be  called 
Z)a??o-Saxon,  and  is  called  Old  Saxon. 

§  28.  Will/  called  Dano-JSaxon. — "When  the  poem 
called  Heliand  was  first  discovered  in  an  English  library, 
the  difference  in  language  between  it  and  the  common 
Anglo-Saxon  composition  was  accoimted  for  by  the 
assumption  of  a  Danish  intermixture. 

§  29.  Why  cMlled  Old  iS'aro??.— When  the  Continental 
origin  of  the  Heliand  was  recognised,  the  language  was 
called  Old  Saxon,  because  it  represented  the  Saxon  of 
the  mother-country,  the  natives  of  which  were  called  Old 
Saxons  by  the  J./?;0-Zo-Saxons  themselves.  Still  the  terra 
is  exceptionable;  as  the  Saxon  of  the  Heliand  is  pro- 
bably a  .s?5/er-dialect  of  the  ^?2^Zo-Saxon,  rather  the 
Anglo-'&.ixow  itself  in  a  Contmental  locality.  Exception- 
able, however,  as  it  is,  it  Avill  be  employed. 


18  AFFINITIES  OF   ENGLISn 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AFFINITIES     OF     THE     ENGLISH     WITH    THE     LANGUAGES     OF 
GERMANY     AND     SCANDINAVIA. 

§  30.  Over  and  above  those  languages  of  Germany 
and  Holland  which  were  akin  to  the  dialects  of  the 
Anglo-Saxons,  cognate  languages  were  spoken  in  Den- 
mark, Sweden,  Norway,  Iceland,  and  the  Feroe  isles, 
i.e.,  in  Scandinavia. 

§  31.  The  general  collective  designation  for  the  Ger- 
manic tongues  of  Germany  and  Holland,  and  for  the 
Scandinavian  languages  of  Denmark,  Sweden,  Norway, 
Iceland,  and  the  Feroe  Isles,  is  taken  from  the  name  of 
those  German  tribes  who,  during  the  decline  of  the 
Iloman  Empire,  were  best  known  to  the  Romans  as 
the  Goths;  the  term  Gothic  for  the  Scandinavian  and 
Germanic  languages,  collectively,  being  both  current 
and  convenient. 

§  32.  Of  this  great  stock  of  languages  the  Scandi- 
navian is  one  branch;  the  Germanic,  called  also  Teu- 
tonic, another. 

§  33.  The  Scandinavian  branch  of  the  Gothic  stock 
comprehends,  1.  The  dialects  of  Scandinavia  Proper,  i.  e., 
of  Norway  and  Sweden ;  2.  of  the  Danish  isles  and 
Jutland  ;   3.  of  Iceland  ;   4.  of  the  Eeroe  Isles. 

§  34.  The  Teutonic  branch  falls  into  three  divisions  : — 

1.  The  Mocso-Gothic. 

2.  The  Iliffh  Germanic. 


WITH   GERilAN  AND  SaVNDINAVI^^J^.  19 

3.  The  Low  Germanic. 

§  35.  It  is  in  the  Mocso-Gothic  that  the  most  ancient 
specimen  of  any  Gothic  tongue  has  been  preserved.  It 
is  also  the  Mocso-Gothic  that  was  spoken  by  the  con- 
querors of  ancient  Rome  ;  by  the  subjects  of  Ilcrmanric, 
Alaric,  Theodoric,  Euric.  Athanaric.  and  Totila. 

In  the  reign  of  Valens,  when  pressed  by  intestine  wars, 
and  by  the  movements  of  the  Huns,  the  Goths  were 
assisted  by  that  emperor,  and  settled  in  the  Roman  pro- 
vince of  Moesia. 

Furthermore,  they  were  converted  to  Christianity; 
and  the  Bible  was  translated  into  their  language  by  their 
Bishop  Ulphilas. 

Fragments  of  this  translation,  chiefly  from  the  Gospels, 
have  come  down  to  the  present  time ;  and  the  Bible 
translation  of  the  Arian  Bishop  Ulphilas,  in  the  language 
of  the  Goths  of  ]Mccsia,  during  the  reign  of  Valens,  ex- 
hibits the  earliest  sample  of  any  Gothic  tongue. 

§  36.  The  Old  High  German,  called  also  Francic^^ 
and  Alemannic,^^  was  spoken  in  the  ninth,  tenth,  and 
eleventh  centuries,  in  Suabia,  Bavaria,  and  Franconia. 

The  Middle  High  German  ranges  from  the  thirteenth 
century  to  the  Reformation. 

§  37.  The  low  Germanic  division,  to  which  the  An- 
glo-Saxon belongs,  is  currently  said  to  comprise  six  lan- 
guages, or  rather  four  languages  in  different  stages. 

I.  II. — The  Anglo-Saxon  and  Modern  English. 

III.  The  Old  Saxon. 

IV.  v.— The  Old  Frisian  and  Modern  Dutch. 
VI. — The  Platt-Deutsch,  or  Low  German. 

§  38.  The  Frisian  and  Dutch. — It  is  a  current  state- 
ment that  the  Old  Frisian  bears  the  same  relation  to  the 
^Modern  Dutch  of  Holland  that  the  Anorlo-Saxon  docs  to 

O 

the  Eucrlish. 


20  AFFINITIES   OF  ENGLISH 

The  truer  view  of  the  question  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  That  a  single  language,  spoken  in  two  dialects,  was 
originally  common  to  both  Holland  and  Friesland. 

2.  That  from  the  northern  of  these  dialects  we  have 
the  Modern  Frisian  of  Friesland. 

3.  From  the  southern,  the  Modern  Dutch  of  Holland. 
The  reason  of  this  refinement  is  as  follows  : — 

The  Modern  Dutch  has  certain  grammatical  forms 
older  than  those  of  the  old  Frisian;  e.^.,  the  Dutch  in- 
finitives and  the  Dutch  weak  substantives,  in  their  oblique 
cases,  end  in  -e;^ ;  those  of  the  Old  Frisian  in  -a :  the 
form  in  -en  being  the  older. 

The  true  Frisian  is  spoken  in  few  and  isolated  locali- 
ties.    There  is — 

1.  The  Frisian  of  the  Dutch  state  called  Friesland. 

2.  The  Frisian  of  the  parish  of  Saterland,  in  West- 
phalia. 

3.  The  Frisian  of  Heligoland. 

4.  The  North  Frisian,  spoken  in  a  few  villages  of 
Slcswick.  One  of  the  characters  of  the  North  Frisian  is 
the  possession  of  a  dual  number. 

In  respect  to  its  stages,  we  have  the  Old  Frisian  of 
the  Asega-bog,  the  Middle  Frisian  of  Gysbert  Japicx,* 
and  the  Modern  Frisian  of  the  present  Frieslanders, 
Westphalians,  and  Heligolanders. 

39.  The  Low  German  and  Plati-Deutsch. — The 
words  Low-German  are  not  only  lax  in  their  application, 
but  they  are  equivocal ;  since  the  term  has  two  meanings, 
a  general  meaning  when  it  signifies  a  division  of  the  Ger- 
manic languages,  comprising  English,  Dutch,  Anglo- 
Saxon,  Old  Saxon,  and  Frisian,  and  a  limited  one  when 
it  means  the  particular  dialects  of  the  Ems,  the  Weser, 
and  the  Elbe.     To  avoid  this  the   dialects   in  question 

*  Sec  Notes  17  and  IS. 


WITH  GERMAN   AND  SCANDINAVIAN. 


21 


arc  conveniently  called  by  their  continental  name  of 
Platt-Deiitsch,  just  as  in  England  we  say  Broad  Scotch. 
§  40.  The  most  characteristic  difference  between  the 
Saxon  and  Icelandic  (indeed  between  the  Teutonic  and 
Scandinavian  tongues)  lies  in  the  peculiar  position  of  the 
definite  article  in  the  latter.  In  Saxon,  the  article  cor- 
responding with  the  modern  word  the,  is  ycet,  se,  se6,  for 
the  neuter,  masculine,  and  feminine  genders  respectively  ; 
and  these  words,  regularly  declined,  are  prefixed  to  the 
words  with  which  they  agree,  just  as  is  the  case  Avith  the 
English  and  with  the  majority  of  languages.  In  Ice- 
landic, however,  the  article  instead  of  preceding,  folloios 
its  noun,  ivith  which  it  coalesces,  having  previously  suffered 
a  change  in  form.  The  Icelandic  article  corresponding 
to  ]>cct,  se,  se6,  is  hitt,  hinn,  hin  :  from  this  the  h  is  ejected, 
so  that,  instead  of  the  regular  inflection  {a),  we  have  the 
forms  ih). 


Neut. 

Maxc. 

Fern. 

Stuff.  Ncnn. 

Hitt 

Hinn 

Hia 

Ace. 

Hitt 

Hinn 

Hina. 

Dat. 

Hinu 

Hinuni 

Hinni. 

Gen. 

IIiii3 

Hiu3 

Hinnar. 

Plur.  IN'om. 

HiQ 

Hinir 

Hinar. 

Ace. 

Hin 

Hina 

Hinar. 

Dat. 

niaum 

Hinum 

Hinum. 

Gen, 

Uiuua 

Hinua 

Hinna. 

Sine/.  Nom. 

-it 

V. 

-inn 

-in 

Ace. 

-it 

-inn 

-ina  (-na). 

Dat. 

-nu 

-num 

-inni  (-nni). 

Gen. 

-ins 

-ins 

-innar  (iinar) 

Flur.  Nom 

-in 

-nir 

-nar. 

Ace. 

-in 

•na 

-nar. 

Dat. 

-num 

num 

-num. 

Gen. 

-nna 

nna 

-nna. 

22 


AFFINITIES  OF   ENGLISTT 


Whence,  as  an  affix,  in  composition, 


Neut. 


Masc. 


Fern, 


Sing.  Norn. 

Augat 

Boginn 

Tungan 

Ace. 

Augat 

Boginn 

TuDgUDi  . 

Dat. 

Auganu 

Boganum 

Tiingiinnt 

Gen. 

Augans 

Bogans 

Tungunnor 

Plur.  Nom. 

Augun 

Bogarnir 

Tuugumar. 

Aec. 

Augun 

Bogana 

Tiingumar. 

Dat. 

Augununi 

Bogunum 

Tungunum. 

Gen. 

Augnanna 

Bogarina 

Tiingnanna, 

In  the  Swedish,  Norwegian,  and  Danish  this  pecu- 
liarity in  the  position  of  the  definite  article  is  preserved. 
Its  origin,  however,  is  concealed ;  and  an  accidental 
identity  with  the  indefinite  article  has  led  to  false  notions 
respecting  its  nature.  In  the  languages  in  point  the  i  is 
changed  into  e,  so  that  what  in  Icelandic  is  it  and  in,  is  in 
Danish  et  and  en.  En,  however,  as  a  separate  word,  is 
the  numeral  one,  and  also  the  indefinite  article  a  ;  whilst 
in  the  neuter  gender  it  is  et — en  sol,  a  sim ;  et  Lord. 
a  table  :  solon,  the  sun  ;  bordet,  the  table.  From  modern 
forms  like  those  just  quoted,  it  has  been  imagined  that 
the  definite  is  merely  the  indefinite  article  transposed. 
This  it  is  not. 

To  apply  an  expression  of  Mr.  Gobbet's,  en  =  a,  and 
-671  =  the,  are  the  same  combination  of  letters,  but  not  the 
same  word. 

§  41.  Another  characteristic  of  the  Scandinavian 
language  is  the  possession  of  a  passive  form,  or  a  passive 
voice,  ending  in  -st : — ek,  \'it,  hann  brennist^I  am, 
thou  art,  he  is  burnt ;  ver  hrennumst  =  we  are  burnt ; 
\er  brennizt  =  ye  are  burnt;  ]>eir  brennast  =  they  are 
burnt.  Past  tense,  ek,  ^ii,  hann  brendist ;  ver  bren- 
dumst,  \er  brenduzt,  \eir  brendust.  Impcrat. :  brcnstu 
■^bc  thou  burnt.     Infinit. ;  bromast  =  to  be  burnt. 


WITH   GERil^VN   AXD  SCANDINAVIAN.  23 

In  the  modern  Danisli  and  Swedish,  the  passive  is 
still  preserved,  but  -without  the  final  t.  In  the  older 
stages  of  Icelandic,  on  the  other  hand,  the  termination 
was  not  -st  but  -sc  ;  which  -sc  grew  out  of  the  reflective 
pronoun  sik.  With  these  phenomena  the  Scandinavian 
languages  give  us  the  evolution  and  development  of  a 
passive  voice ;  wherein  we  have  the  following  series  of 
changes : — 1.  the  reflective  pronoun  coalesces  with  the 
verb,  whilst  the  sense  changes  from  that  of  a  reflective 
to  that  of  a  middle  verb ;  2.  the  c  changes  to  t,  whilst 
the  middle  sense  passes  into  a  passive  one ;  3.  ^  is 
dropped  from  the  end  of  the  word,  and  the  expression  that 
was  once  reflective  then  becomes  strictly  passive. 

Now  the  Saxons  have  no  passive  voice  at  all.  That 
they  should  have  one  originating  like  that  of  the  Scandi- 
navians was  impossible,  inasmuch  as  they  had  no  reflective 
pronoun,  and,  consequently,  nothing  to  evolve  it  from. 


24  ELEMENTS  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER    V. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    ENGLISH     LANGUAGE. GERMANIC    ELEMENTS, 

TIIE    ANGLES. 

§  42.  The  language  of  England  has  been  formed  out 
of  three  elements. 

a.  Elements  referable  to  the  original  British  popula- 
tion, and  derived  from  times  anterior  to  the  Anglo-Saxon 
invasion. 

h.  Anglo-Saxon,  Germanic,  or  imported  elements. 

c.  Elements  introduced  since  the  Anglo-Saxon  con- 
quest. 

§  43.  Each  of  these  requires  a  special  analysis,  but 
that  of  the  second  will  be  taken  first,  and  form  the  con- 
tents of  the  present  chapter. 

All  that  we  have  at  present  learned  concerning  the  Ger- 
manic invaders  of  England,  is  the  geographical  area  which 
they  originally  occupied.  How  far,  however,  it  was  sim- 
ple Saxons  who  conquered  England  single-handed,  or  how 
far  the  particular  Saxon  Germans  were  portions  of  a 
complex  population,  requires  further  investigation.  "Were 
the  Saxons  one  division  of  the  German  population, 
whilst  the  Angles  were  another?  or  were  the  Angles  a 
section  of  the  Saxons,  so  that  the  latter  was  a  genei'ic 
term  including  the  former  1  Again,  although  the  Saxon 
invasion  may  be  the  one  which  has  had  the  greatest 
influence,  and  drawn  the  most  attention,  why  may  there 
not  have  been  separate  and  independent  migrations,  the 


ELEMENTS   OF  ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  25 

effects  and  record  of  Avliich  have,  in  the  lapse  of  time, 
become  fused  with  those  of  the  more  important  divisions  ? 

§  44.  The  Angles ;  who  were  they  7  and  ivhat  ivas 
their  relation  to  the  Saxons  7 — The  first  answer  to  this 
question  embodies  a  great  fact  in  the  way  of  internal  evi- 
dence, viz.,  that  they  were  the  people  from  whom  Eng- 
land derives  the  name  it  \)Cduxa  =  Angle  land,  i.  e.,  land  of 
the  Angles.  Our  language  too  is  English,  i.  e.,  Angle. 
Whatever,  then,  they  may  have  been  on  the  Continent, 
they  were  a  leading  section  of  the  invaders  here.  Why 
then  has  their  position  in  our  inqavics  been  hitherto  so 
subordinate  to  that  of  the  Saxons  'I  It  is  because  their 
importance  and  preponderance  are  not  so  manifest  in  Ger- 
many as  we  infer  them  to  have  been  in  Britain.  Nay 
more,  their  historical  place  amongst  the  nations  of  Gei'- 
many,  is  both  insignificant  and  uncertain  ;  indeed,  it  will 
be  seen  from  the  sequel,  that  in  and  of  themselves  we 
know  next  to  nothing  about  them,  knowing  them  only  in 
their  relations,  i.  e.,  to  ourselves  and  to  the  Saxons. 

§  45.  Although  they  are  the  section  of  the  immigra- 
tion which  gave  the  name  to  England,  and,  as  such,  the 
preponderating  element  in  the  eyes  of  the  present  English, 
they  were  not  so  in  the  eyes  of  the  original  British  ;  who 
neither  knew  at  the  time  of  the  Conquest,  nor  know  now, 
of  any  other  name  for  their  German  enemies  but  Saxon. 
And  Saxon  is  the  name  by  which  the  present  English 
are  known  to  the  Welsh,  Armorican,  and  Gaelic  Celts. 

Welsh Saxon. 

Armorican Soson. 

Gaelic Sassenach. 

§  46.  Although  they  are  the  section  of  the  immigra- 
tion which  gave  the  name  to  England,  &c.,  they  were 
quite  as  little  Angles  as  Saxons  in  the  eyes  of  foreign 

3 


26  GERMANIC  ELEMENTS. 

cotemporary  writers  ;  since  the  expression  Saxonim  tranS' 
7narincB,  occurs  as  applied  to  England. 

§  47.  Who  were  the  Angles  7 — Altliougli  tliey  are  tlie 
section  of  the  immigration  -wliicli  gave  the  name  to  Eng- 
land, (fee,  the  notices  of  them  as  Germans  in  Germany, 
are  extremely  limited. 

Extract  from  Tacitus. — This  merely  connects  them 
with  certain  other  tribes,  and  affirms  the  existence  of 
certain  religious  ordinances  common  to  them : — 

"  Contra  Langobardos  paucitas  nobilitat :  plurimis  ac 
valcntissimis  nationibus  cincti,  non  per  obsequium  sed 
proeliis  et  periclitando  tuti  sunt.  Reudigni  deindc,  et 
Aviones,  et  Angli,  et  Yarini,  et  Eudoses,  et  Suardones, 
et  Nuithones,  fluminibus  aut  silvis  muniuntur :  ncc  quid- 
quam  notabile  in  singulis,  nisi  quod  in  commune  Herthum, 
id  est,  Terram  matrem  colunt,  eamque  intervenire  rebus 
hominum,-  invehi  populis,  arbitrantur.  Est  in  insula 
Oceani  Castum  nemus,  dicatumque  in  eo  vehiculum,  veste 
contectum,  attingere  uni  sacerdoti  concessum.  Is  adesse 
penctrali  dcam  intelligit,  vectamque  bobus  feminis  multa 
cum  vencratione  prosequitur.  Lceti  tunc  dies,  festa  loca, 
quaicumque  adventu  hospitioque  dignatur.  Non  holla 
ineunt,  non  arma  sumunt,  clausum  omnc  ferrum ;  pax  et 
quies  tunc  tantum  nota,  tunc  tantum  amata,  donee  idem 
sacerdos  satiatam  conversatione  mortalium  deam  templo 
reddat ;  mox  vehiculum  et  Testes,  et,  si  credere  velis, 
numen  ipsuni  secreto  lacu  abluitur.  Servi  ministrant, 
quos  statim  idem  lacus  haui-it.  Arcanus  hinc  terror, 
sanctaque  ignorantia,  quid  sit  id,  quod  tantum  pcrituri 
vident."* 

Extract  from  Ptolemy. — This  connects  the  Angles 
^^itll  the  Suevi,  and  Langohardi,  and  places  them  on  the 
Middle  Elbe. — ^Evros  Kal  fiecroyelciyv  i'^vojv  /xiyia-Ta  jxev 
*  De  Mor.  Germ.  40. 


OF   ENGLISH   L.iNGUAGE.  27 

eVrt  TO  re  twv  Sov/jPcov  tcov  'AyyetXwv,  oX  elcnv  avaroki' 
KcorepoL  T<j)v  Aayyo/SdpScop,  dvaTeivovT€<i  Trpo?  ra?  cipKTovi 
fie-)(^pt  TCOV  fjikaoiv  tov  "A\j3io^  iroTa/xov. 

Extract  from  Procopius. — For  this  see  §  55. 

Heading  of  a  law  referred  to  the  age  of  Charle- 
magne.— This  connects  them  with  the  Wcrini  (Varni)  and 
the  Thuringians — "Incipit  lex  Angliorum  et  Werino- 
rum  hoc  est  Thuringonim." 

§  48.  These  notices  agree  in  giving  the  Angles  a  Ger- 
man  locality,  and  in  connecting  them  ethnologically,  and 
philologically  with  the  Germans  of  Germany.  And 
such  was,  undoub'tedly,  the  case.  Nevertheless,  it  may 
be  seen  from  §  15  that  a  Danish  orisrin  has  been  assim- 

o  o 

cd  to  them. 

The  exact  Germanic  affinities  of  the  Angles  are,  how 
ever,  difficult  to  ascertain,  since  the  tribes  with  which  they 
are  classed  are  differently  classed.  This  we  shall  see  by 
asking  the  following  questions  : — 

§  49.  What  were  the  Langohardi,  with  Avhom  the 
Angles  were  connected  by  Tacitus  ?  The  most  important 
fact  to  be  known  concerning  them  is,  that  the  general 
opinion  is  in  favour  of  their  having  belonged  to  either  the 
High-QQxmaja,  or  Moeso-  Gothic  division,  rather  than  to 
the  Loiu. 

§  50.  What  were  the  Siievi,  with  whom  the  Angles 
were  connected  by  Tacitus?  The  most  important  fact 
to  be  known  concerning  them  is,  that  the  general  opinion 
is  in  favour  of  their  having  belonged  to  either  the  High- 
German  or  Moeso-Gothic  division  rather  than  to  the 
Low. 

§  51.  What  were  the  Werini,  with  whom  the  Angles 
were  connected  in  the  Leges  Anglorum  et  Werinoru7n  7 
Without  having  any  particular  data  for  connecting  the 
Werini  (Yarni,  Ovdpvot)  with  either  the  High-German,  or 


28  GERM.\JNIC  ELEMENTS. 

the  Mocso-Gothlc  divisions,  there  are  certain  facts  in  favour 
of  their  being  Slavonic. 

§  52.  What  ■\vcrc  the  Thuringians,  with  whom  the 
Angles  are  connected  in  the  Leges  Anglorum,  7  Ger- 
manic in  locality,  and  most  probably  allied  to  the  Goths 
of  Mocsia  in  language.     If  not,  High-Germans. 

§  53.  Of  the  Reudigni,  Eudoses,  Nuithones,  Suar- 
dones,  and  Aviones,  too  little  is  known  in  detail  to  make 
the  details  an  inquiry  of  importance. 

§  54.  The  reader  has  now  got  a  general  view  of  the 
extent  to  which  the  position  of  the  Angles,  as  a  German 
tribe,  is  complicated  by  conflicting  statements ;  statements 
which  connect  them  with  (probably)  ii/jo-Zi-German  Thu- 
ringians,  Suevi,  and  Langobardi,  and  with  (probably)  Sla- 
vonic Werini,  or  Varni ;  whereas  in  England,  they  are 
scarcely  distinguishable  from  the  Z<oi^-German  Sax- 
ons. In  the  present  state  of  our  knowledge,  the  only 
safe  fact  seems  to  be,  that  of  the  common  relation  of 
both  Angles  and  Saxons  to  the  present  English  of  Eng- 
land. 

This  brings  the  two  sections  within  a  very  close  de- 
gree of  afiinity,  and  makes  it  probable,  that,  just  as  at 
present,  descendants  of  the  Saxons  arc  English  {Angle) 
in  Britain,  so,  in  the  third  and  fourth  centuries,  ancestors 
of  the  Angles  were  Saxons  in  Germany.  Why,  however, 
the  one  name  preponderated  on  the  Continent,  and  the 
other  in  England  is  difficult  to  ascertain. 

§  55.  The  Frisians  have  been  mentioned  as  a  German- 
ic population  likely  to  have  joined  in  the  invasion  of  Brit- 
ain ;  the  jpresumption  in  favor  of  their  having  done  so 
arising  from  their  geographical  position. 

There  is,  however,  something  more  than  mere  pre- 
eumption  upon  this  point. 

Archbishop  Usher,  amongst  the  earlier  historians,  and 


OF   ENGLISH   L.-VNGUAGE.  29 

Mr.  Kemblc  amongst  tliosc  of  the  present  day,  as  ■well 
as  other  intermediate  investigators,  have  drawn  attention 
to  certain  important  notices  of  them. 

The  main  facts  bearing  upon  this  question  are  the 
following : — 

1.  Ilengist,  according  to  some  traditions,  was  a  Frisian 
hero. 

2.  Procopius*'  wrote  as  follows : — BpnTiav  Se  ti]v 
vijaov  e^uT]  rpia  TroXuav'^ pcoTTorara  e-^^ovai,  /SacriXey?  re 
eh  avTCJv  eKuarw  i(f)eaTr)Kev,  ovofiara  hk  Kstrac  T049  e^vecxL 
TOVTOt<;  'AyyiXoc  re  Kal  ^picra-ove^  koI  ol  rfj  v^aa  ofjuovu- 
fioi  BpiTTcove^.  TocrauTTj  8e  7)  rcovSe  rwv  i^vcov  TroXvav- 
'^pooTTia  (paiveTai  ovaa  coare  ava  irav  eVo9  Kara  iroXkov'i 
iv^evSe  fieravca-rdfievoc  ^vv  yvvac^l  koI  Traialv  eV  ^pdy- 
yovs  x^^povcriv. — Procop.  B.  G.  iv.  20. 

3.  In  the  Saxon  Chronicle  we  find  the  following  pas- 
sage : — "  That  same  year,  the  armies  from  among  the  East- 
Anglians,  and  from  among  the  North-Humbrians,  ha- 
rassed the  land  of  the  West-Saxons  chiefly,  most  of  all 
by  their  'sescs,'  which  they  had  built  many  years  be- 
fore. Then  king  Alfred  commanded  long  ships  to  be 
built  to  oppose  the  scscs ;  they  were  full-nigh  twice  as 
long  as  the  others ;  some  had  sixty  oars,  and  some  had 
more ;  they  were  both  swifter  and  steadier,  and  also 
higher  than  the  others.  They  were  shapen  neither  like 
the  Frisian  nor  the  Danish,  but  so  as  it  seemed  to  him 
that  they  would  be  most  efficient.  Then  some  time  in 
the  same  year,  there  came  six  ships  to  Wight,  and  there 
did  much  harm,  as  well  as  in  Devon,  and  elsewhere  along 
the  sea  coast.  Then  the  king  commanded  nine  of  the  new 
ships  to  go  thither,  and  they  obstructed  their  passage  from 
the  port  towards  the  outer  sea.  Then  went  they  with 
three  of  their  ships  out  against  them ;  and  three  lay  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  port  in  the  dry ;  the  men  were  gone 


GO  ELEilENTS  OF  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

from  tlicm  ashore.  Then  took  they  two  of  the  three  shipa 
at  the  outer  part  of  the  port,  and  killed  the  men,  and  the 
other  ship  escaped ;  in  that  also  the  men  were  killed 
except  five ;  they  got  away  because  the  other  ships  were 
aground.  They  also  were  aground  very  disadvantage- 
ously,  three  li\y  aground  on  that  side  of  the  deep  on  which 
the  Danish  ships  were  aground,  and  all  the  rest  upon 
the  other  side,  so  that  no  one  of  them  could  get  to  the 
others.  But  when  the  water  had  ebbed  many  furlongs 
from  the  ships,  then  the  Danish  men  went  from  their 
three  ships  to  the  other  three  which  were  left  by  the  tide 
on  their  side,  and  then  they  there  fought  against  them. 
There  was  slain  Lucumon  the  king's  reeve,  and  Wulf- 
heard  the  Frisian,  and  JEbbe  the  Frisian,  and  iEthel- 
here  the  Frisian,  and  iEthelferth  the  king's  'gencat,' 
and  of  all  the  men,  Frisians  and  English,  seventy-two ; 
and  of  the  Danish  men  one  hundred  and  twenty." 

§  56.  I  believe  then,  that,  so  far  from  the  current  ac- 
counts being  absolutely  correct,  in  respect  to  the  Ger- 
manic elements  of  the  English  population,  the  Jutes,  as 
mentioned  by  Beda,  formed  no  part  of  it,  whilst  the  Fris- 
ians, not  so  mentioned,  were  a  real  constituent  therein ; 
besides  which,  there  may,  very  easily,  have  been  other 
Germanic  tribes,  though  in  smaller  ptDportions. 


SlTvUCTUllE   or   CELTIC   TONGUES.  31 


CHAPTER  VL 

THE     CELTIC     STOCK     OF     LANGUAGES,    AND     niEIK,     RELATIONS 
TO     THE     ENGLISH. 

§  57.  The  languages  of  Great  Britain  at  tlic  invasion 
of  Julius  Caesar  were  of  the  Celtic  stock. 

Of  the  Celtic  stock  there  are  two  branches. 

1.  The  British  or  Cambrian  branch,  represented  by 
the  present  Welsh,  and  containing,  besides,  the  Cornish 
of  Cornwall  (lately  extinct),  and  the  Armorican  of  the 
French  province  of  Brittany.  It  is  almost  certain  that 
the  old  British,  the  ancient  language  of  Gaul,  and  the 
Pictish  were  of  this  branch. 

2.  The  Gaelic  or  Erse  branch,  represented  by  the 
present  Irish  Gaelic,  and  containing,  besides,  the  Gaelic 
of  the  Highlands  of  Scotland  and  the  Manks  of  the  Isle 
of  Man. 

§  58.  Taken  altogether  the  Celttc  tongues  form  a 
very  remarkable  class.  As  compared  with  those  of  the 
Gothic  stock  they  are  marked  by  the  following  charac- 
teristics : — 

The  scantiness  of  the  declension  of  Celtic  nowis. — lu 
Irish  there  is  a  peculiar  form  for  the  dative  plural,  as 
cos  -^foot,  cos-aihh  =  to  feet  (ped-iiw^) ;  and  beyond  this 
there  is  notliing  else  whatever  in  the  way  of  case,  as 
found  in  the  German,  Latin,  Greek,  and  other  tongues. 
Even  the  isolated  form  in  question  is  not  found  in  the 


32  STRUCTURE   OF  CELTIC  TONGUES, 

"Welsh  and  Breton,     llencc  tlic  Celtic  tongues  arc  pre 
eminently  iininflcctcd  in  the  way  of  declension. 

§  59.  The  agf^lutinate  character  of  their  verbal  in- 
flections. — In  Welsh  the  pronouns  for  we,  ye,  and  ihc]/, 
are  id,  chwyi,  and  hwynt  respectively.  In  Welsh  also 
the  root  =  Ibve  is  car.  As  conjugated  in  the  plural  num- 
ber this  is — 

Cd,r-wn  =  Vixa-amus. 

car-yc/i  =  ^va-atis. 

c^r-ant  =  am-aw^. 
Now  the  -wn,  -ych^  and  -ant,  of  the  persons  of  the  verbs 
are  the  personal  pronouns,  so  that  the  inflection  is  really 
a  verb  and  a  pronoun  in  a  state  of  agglutination ;  i.  e., 
in  a  state  where  the  original  separate  existence  of  the 
two  sorts  of  words  is  still  manifest.  This  is  probably 
the  case  with  languages  in  general.  The  Celtic,  how- 
ever, has  the  peculiarity  of  exhibiting  it  in  an  unmis- 
takable manner ;  showing,  as  it  were,  an  inflection  in  the 
process  of  formation,  and  (as  such)  exhibiting  an  early 
stage  of  language. 

§  60.  The  system  of  initial  mutaiiohs. — The  Celtic, 
as  has  been  seen,  is  deficient  in  the  ordinary  means  of 
expressing  case.  How  does  it  make  up  for  this  1  Even 
thus.  The  noun  changes  its  initial  letter  according  to 
its  relation  to  the  other  words  of  the  sentence.  Of 
course  this  is  subject  to  rule.  As,  however,  I  am  only 
writing  for  the  sake  of  illustrating  in  a  general  way  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Celtic  tongues,  the  following  table, 
from  Prichard's  "  Eastern  Origin  of  the  Celtic  Nations," 
is  sufficient. 

Car,  a  kinsman.  3.  form,  Ei  char,  her  kiiismav,. 

1.  form,  Cox  agos,  a  near  kins-  4.  Vy    nghui-,     my    kino- 

man,  tman. 

2.  Ei  c;d}\  his  kinsman. 


STRUCTURE   OF  CELTIC  TOXGUES. 


33 


Tad 

afdllur. 

1. 

form, 

Tad  y  plcntyn,  the 
child's  father. 

o 

Ei  dad,  his  father. 

3. 

Ei  thdd,  her  father. 

4. 

Vj  nhad,  my  father. 

Pen, 

a  head. 

1. 

form, 

Pen  gwr,  the  head  of 
a  man. 

o_ 

Ei  ben,  his  head. 

3. 

Ei  phen,  her  head. 

4. 

Yy  luhcn,  my  head. 

Gwa 

s,  a  servant. 

1. 

form. 

Gwds  fydLlon,  a  faith- 
ful servant. 

2. 

Ei  w4s,  his  servaiit. 

8. 

Vy  ngwas,  7ny  ser- 
vant. 

Daw,  a  god. 

1. 

form. 

Duw  trugarog,  a  mer- 
ciful god. 

2. 

Ei  dhuw,  his  god. 

3, 

Vy  nuw,  viy  god 

Bara,  brccul. 

1.  /or/«,    Bara       canu,      w7<i7« 

2.  Ei  vara,  his  bread. 

3.  Vy  mara,  my  bread, 
hhaw,  a  hand. 

1.  form,   Lliaw    wenn,    a   w/u7e 

/<a?i(Z. 

2.  Ei  law,  /tis  7ia?ic/. 
Mam,  a  mtther. 

1.  /on/?,   Mara   dirion,    a   tender 

mother. 

2.  Eivam,  Ids  mother. 
Rhwyd,  a  net. 

1.  form,   Rhwyd  lawn,    a  full 

net. 

2.  Ei  rwyd,  his  net. 
From  the  Erse. 

Siiil,  an  eye. 

1.  form,  SuiL 

2.  A  buil,  his  eye. 
Slainte,  health. 

2.  form.  Do  Llainte,  your  health. 


§  61.  The  Celtic  tongues  have  lately  received  esiDccial 
illustration  from  the  researches  of  Mr.  Garnett.  Amonsrst 
others,  the  two  following  points  are  particularly  investi- 
gated hy  him : — 

1.  The  affinities  of  the  an3icnt  language  of  Gaul, 

2.  The  affinities  of  the  Pictish  language  or  dialect. 

§  62.  The  ancient  language  of  Gaul  Cambrian. — 
The  evidence  in  favour  of  the  ancient  language  of  Gaul 
being  Cambrian  rather  than  Gaelic,  lies  in  the  following 
facts : — 

The  old  Gallic  glosses  are  more  Welsh  than  Gaelic. 

a.  Petorritum  =  a  four-wheeled  carriage,  from  the 
Welsh,  i^eder=fonr,   and  rhod=a  wheel.     The   Gaelic 


54  STRUCTURE   OF  CELTIC  TONGUES. 

for  four   is   ceathair.    und    the    Gaelic  coinj)Ound  ■would 
have  been  different. 

b.  Pempcdula,  the  cinque-foil^  from  the  Welsh  piaiip 
—Jive,  and  dalen  —  a  leaf  The  Gaelic  for  Jive  is  ciiig; 
and  the  Gaelic  compound  would  have  been  different. 

c.  Candetum=  a  measure  of  100  feet,  from  the  Welsh 
can^  =  100.  The  Gaelic  for  a  hundred  is  cead,  and  the 
Gaelic  compound  would  have  been  different. 

d.  Epona  =  the  goddess  of  horses.  In  the  old  Armori- 
can  the  root  ep  =  horse.     The  Gaelic  for  a  horse  is  each. 

e.  The  evidence  from  the  names  of  geographical  locali- 
ties in  Gaul,  both  ancient  and  modern,  goes  the  same 
way :  Nantuates,  Nantouin,  Nanteuil,  are  derived  from 
the  Welsh  naiit  =  a  valley,  a  word  unknown  in  Gaelic. 

/.  The  evidence  of  certain  French  provincial  words, 
which  are  Welsh  and  Armorican  rather  than  Erse  or 
Gaelic. 

§  Go.  Tlie  Pictish  most  probabli/  Cambriaii. — The 
evidence  in  favour  of  the  Pictish  being  Cambrian  rather 
than  Gaelic  lies  in  the  following  facts  : 

a.  When  St.  Columbanus  preached,  whose  mother- 
tongue  was  Irish  Gaelic,  he  used  an  interpreter.  This 
shows  the  difference  between  the  Pict  and  Gaelic.  What 
follows  shows  the  affinity  between  the  Pict  and  Welsh. 

b.  A  manuscript  in  the  Colbertine  library  contains  a 
list  of  Pictish  kings  from  the  fifth  century  downwards. 
These  names  are  more  Welsh  than  Gaelic.  Taran  = 
thunder  in  Welsh.  Uven  is  the  Welsh  Owen.  The 
first  syllable  in  Talorg  {=forehcad)  is  the  tal  in  Tal- 
haiarn  =  iron  forehead,  Talicssin  =  splendid  forehead, 
Welsh  names.  Wrgust  is  nearer  to  the  Welsh  Gwrgust 
than  to   the   Irish  Fergus.      Finally,   Drust,  Drostan, 

Wrad,  Necton,  closely  resemble  the  Welsh  Trtvst,  Trivst' 


STRUCTURE  OF  CELTIC  TONGUES.  35 

a)i,  Gioriad,  Nwijthon.    Cineod  and  Do?nhnall  {Kenneth 
and  Donnell)  are  the  only  true  Erse  forms  in  the  list. 

c.  The  only  Pictish  common  name  extant  is  the  well- 
known  compound  pen  val,  which  is,  in  the  oldest  ^IS. 
of  Beda,  peann  fahel.  This  means  caput  valU,  and  is 
the  name  for  the  eastern  termination  of  the  Yallum  of 
Antoninus.  Herein  j^cn  is  unequivocally  "Welsh,  meaning 
head.  It  is  an  impossible  form  in  Gaelic.  Fal,  on  the 
other  hand,  is  apparently  Gaelic,  the  Welsh  for  a  ram- 
pa7-i  being  gwall.  Fal,  however,  occurs  in  "Welsh  also, 
and  means  inclosure. 

The  evidence  just  indicated  is  rendered  nearly  con- 
clusive by  an  interpolation,  apparently  of  the  twelfth 
century,  of  the  Durham  MS.  of  Nennius,  whereby  it  is 
stated  that  the  spot  in  question  was  called  in  Gaelic 
Cenail.  Now  Cenail  is  the  modern  name  Kinneil,  and 
it  is  also  a  Gaelic  translation  of  the  Pict  pen  val,  since 
cean  is  the  Gaelic  for  head,  and  fhail  for  rampart  or 
wall.  If  the  older  form  were  Gaelic,  the  substitution, 
or  translation,  would  have  been  superfluous. 

d.  The  name  of  the  Och'd  Hills  in  Perthshire  is  better 
explained  from  the  Pict  uchcl  =  high,  than  from  the  Gaelic 
uasal. 

e.  Bryneich,  the  British  form  of  the  province  Bernicia, 
is  better  explained  by  the  Welsh  hryn  =  ridge  [hilhj 
zountnj),   than    by   any  word    in   Gaelic. — Garnett,    in 

Transactions  of  Philological  Society." 


36  LANGUAGES  DEEIVED 


CHAPTER  VII. 

THE    ANGLO-NOUMAN,    AND    THE    LANGUAGFS    OF    TUE    CLASSICAL 
STOCK. 

§  G4.  The  languages  of  Greece  and  Rome  belong  to 
one  and  tlie  same  stock. 

The  Greek  and  its  dialects,  botli  ancient  and  modern, 
constitute  the  Greek  of  the  Classical  stock. 

The  Latin  in  all  its  dialects,  the  old  Italian  languages 
allied  to  it,  and  the  modern  tongues  derived  from  the 
Roman,  constitute  the  Latin  branch  of  the  Classical  stock. 

Now,  although  the  Greek  dialects  are  of  only  second- 
ary importance  in  the  illustration  of  the  history  of  the 
English  language,  the  Latin  elements  require  a  special 
consideration. 

This  is  because  the  Norman  French,  introduced  into 
England  by  the  battle  of  Hastings,  is  a  language  derived 
from  the  Roman,  and  consequently  a  language  of  the 
Latin  branch  of  the  Classical  stock. 

§  65.  The  Latin  language  overspread  the  greater  part 
of  the  Roman  empire.  It  supplanted  a  multiplicity  of 
aboriginal  languages ;  just  as  the  Enghsh  of  North 
America  has  supplanted  the  aboriginal  tongues  of  the 
native  Indians,  and  just  as  the  Russian  is  supplanting 
those  of  Siberia  and  Kamskatka. 

Sometimes  the  war  that  the  Romans  carried  on  against 
the  old  inhabitants  was  a  war  of  extermination.  In  this 
case  the  original  language  was  superseded  at  once.     In 


FEOM  THE   LATIN,  37 

otlicr  cases  their  influence  was  introduced  gradually.  In 
tliis  case  the  influence  of  the  original  language  was 
greater  and  more  permanent. 

Just  as  in  the  United  States  the  English  came  in 
contact  with  an  American,  whilst  in  New  Holland  it 
comes  in  contact  with  an  Australian  language,  so  was 
the  Latin  language  of  Rome  engrafted,  sometimes  on  a 
Celtic,  sometimes  on  a  Gothic,  and  sometimes  on  some 
other  stock.  The  nature  of  the  original  language  must 
ahvajs  be  borne  in  mind. 

From  Italy,  its  original  scat,  the  Latin  was  extended 
in  the  following  chronological  order : — 

1.  To  the  Spanish  Peninsula ;  where  it  overlaid  or 
was  engrafted  on  languages  allied  to  the  present  Bis- 
cayan. 

2.  To  Gaul,  or  France,  where  it  overlaid  or  was  en- 
grafted on  languages  of  the  Celtic  stock. 

3.  To  Dacia  and  Pannonia  where  it  overlaid  or  was 
engrafted  on  a  language  the  stock  whereof  is  undeter- 
mined, but  which  was,  probably,  Sarmatian.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  Latin  into  Dacia  and  Pannonia  took  place 
in  the  time  of  Trajan. 

§  66.  From  these  difi'ercnt  introductions  of  the  Latin 
into  difi'ercnt  countries  we  have  the  following  modern 
languages — 1st  Italian,  2nd  Spanish  and  Portuguese,  3rd 
French,  4th  Wallachian  ;  to  which  must  be  added  a  5th, 
the  Romanese  of  part  of  Switzerland. 

Specimen  of  the  Romanese. 

Luke  XV.  11. 

11.  Uii  Hum  vcva  dus  Filgs  : 

12.  Ad  ilij  juveu  da  quels  schet  .ilg  Bab,  "Bab  mi  dai  la  Part  de  la 
Rauba  c'  auJ'  a  mi :  ad  el  parchu  or  ad  eld  la  Rauba. 

13.  A  bucca  bears  Gis  suenter,  cur  ilg  Filg  juvcu  vet  tut  mesa  ao- 


88  I. » "languages  derived 

Bcmcl,  scha  tiU  '1  navcnt  en  iiana  Terra  dalunscb :  a  lou  sfiget  el  tut  eia 
Rauba  cun  vivcr  scaza  spargu. 

1-1.  A  cur  el  vet  tut  sfaig,  scha  vangit  ei  en  quella  Terra  iin  grond 
Fumaz :  ad  el  antschavet  a  ver  basengs. 

15.  Ad  el  ma,  a:  sa  plido  enn  iin  Burgcis  da  quella  Terra  ;  a  quel  ilg 
tarmatet  or  sin  ses  Beius  a  parcliirar  ils  Pores. 

16.  Ad  el  grigiava  dad  ainplanir  sicu  Venter  cun  las  Criscaa  cli'  Ua 
Pores  malgiavan  ;    mo  nagin  Igi  deva. 

17.  Mo  el  ma  en  sasez  a  schet:  "Quonts  Fumelgs  da  mieu  Bab  ban 
budonza  da  Pann,  a  jou  mici  d'  fom ! " 

18.  "  Jou  vi  lavar  si,  ad  ir  tier  mieu  Bab,  e  vi  gir  a  Igi :  '  Bab,  jou  hai 
faig  puccau  ancunter  ilg  Tscliiel  ad  avont  tei ; 

19.  " '  A  sunt  bucca  pli  vaugonts  da  vangir  nuranaus  tie^i  Filg ;  fai  mei 
esser  sco  iin  da  tes  Fumelgs.'  " 

Specimen  of  the  Wallachian. 

Luke  XV.  11. 

11.  Un  om  evea  doi  fee  orl. 

12.  Shi  a  zis  c'el  mal  tinr  din  ei  tatlui  su:  tat,  dmi  partea  c'e  mi  se 
kade  de  avucie :  slii  de  a  imprcit  lor  avuciea. 

1 3.  Shi  nu  dup  multe  zile,  adunint  toate  fee  orul  c  el  mai  tinr,  s'a 
du3  iutr  'o  car  departe,  shi  akolo  a  rsipit  toat  avuciea  ca,  viecuind  intr 
dezmierdii. 

14.  Shi  keltuind  el  toate,  c'a  f  kut  foamete  mare  iuti-'  ac'ea  car :  shi 
el  a  inc'eput  a  se  lipsi. 

15.  Shi  mergina  c'a  lipit  de  imul  din  Uoiitorii  crii  ac'eia:  si  '1  a 
trimis  pre  el  la  earinide  sale  c  pask  porc'iL 

16.  Shi  doria  c  'shi  sature  pinctec'ele  su  de  roshkobele  c'e  mlnka 
porc'ii !  sM  nimini  nu  i  da  lui 

1*7.  Jar  viind  intru  sine,  a  zis;  kici  argaci  ai  tatlui  mieii  sint  indes- 
tulaci  de  piine,  iar  cu  pieiu  de  foarae. 

18.  Skula-m-viou,  slai  m'  voiu  duc'e  la  tata  mieu,  shi  viou  zicV 
lui: 

19.  Tat,  gresliit-ara  la  e'er  shi  inaintca  ta,  slii  nu  mai  sint  vrednik  a 
m  kema  fiul  tu ;  fm  ka  pre  unul  din  argacii  ti. 

§  6T.  Such  is  the  general  ^iew  of  the  languages  de- 
rived from  the  Latin,  i.  e.,  of  the  languages  of  the  Latin 
branch  of  the  Classical  stock. 


FROM  THE   LATIN. 

The  French  requires  to  be  more  minutely  exhibited. 

Between  the  provincial  French  of  the  north  and  the 
provincial  French  of  the  south,  there  is  a  difference,  at 
the  present  day,  at  least  of  dialect,  and  perhaps  of  lan- 
guage. This  is  shown  by  the  following  specimens :  the 
first  from  the  canton  of  Arras,  on  the  confines  of  Flanders  ; 
the  second  from  the  department  of  Var,  in  Provence. 
The  date  of  each  is  a.d.  1807. 

I. 

Luke  XV.  11. 

11.  A.iii  horame  avoiiait  deeux  garcbeous. 

VZ.  L'pus  joue  dit  a  saiu  pore,  "Maiu  pure,  bailie  m'chcu  qui  doUo 
me  Vv'nir  ed  vous  bien,"  et  lue  pilsre  leu  partit  saiii  biea 

13.  Aiu  n'sais  yur,  iro,  quate,  cLeon  joui'3  ajwea  l'pus  tio  d'cuea 
deeux  efeans  oyant  r'cuelle  tout  s'n'  heritt'main,  s'ot'  aiuvoye  daina 
uaiu  pahis  gramain  loiion,  du  qu'il  ^cbilla  tout  s'n'  argiut  aiu  fageaut 
rbraingand  dains  ches  cabarets. 

1-1.  Abord  qu'il  o  eu  tout  bu,  tout  mie  et  tout  drele,  il  o  v'nu  adonc 
daius  ch'  pahis  lo  ainn'  faraaine  cruliellc,  et  i  c'lnaincbouait  d'avoir  fon-ye 
d'  jx)n-ye  (/.  c.  faim  de  pain). 

IL 

THE   SAME. 

1 1.  Uu  home  avie  dous  enf:\us. 

12.  Lou  plus  piclioun  diguet  a  son  paire,  "Moun  piiire,  dounas  ml  ce 
que  mi  rcven  de  vouastr6  ben  ;"  lou  paire  faguet  lou  partage  de  tout  ce 
que  poussedavo. 

13.  Paou  dc  jours  apres,  lou  picboun  vendet  tout  se  que  soun  piiire  li 
avie  desamjjarat,  et  s'en  anet  dins  uu  piiis  fourco  luench,  ounte  dissipet  tout 
soun  ben  en  debaucbo. 

14.  Quand  aguet  tou  arcaba,  uuo  grosso  famino  arribct  dins  aqueou 
pais  ct,  leou,  si  veguet  reduecb  a,  la  derniero  misero. 

Practically  speaking,  although  in  the  central  parts  of 
France  the  northern  and  southern  dialects  melt  into  each 


40  L.\JS"GUAGES  DERIVED 

other,  the  Loire  may  be  considered  as  a  line  of  demarca- 
tion bet^Yecn  two  lanraafircs :  the  term  laurjuaire  being 
employed  because,  in  the  Middle  Ages,  ■whatever  may 
be  their  real  difference,  their  northern  tongue  and  the 
southern  tongue  were  dealt  with  not  as  separate  dialects, 
but  as  distinct  "languages — the  southern  being  called  Pro- 
vcn9al,  the  northern  Norman-French. 

Of  these  two  languages  (for  so  they  will  in  the  fol- 
lowing pages  be  called,  for  the  sake  of  convenience)  the 
southern,  or  Provencal,  approaches  the  dialects  of  Spain ; 
the  Yalencian  of  Spain  and  the  Catalonian  of  Spain 
being  Provencal  rather  than  standard  Spanish  or  Cas- 
tilian. 

The  southern  French  is  sometimes  called  the  Langue 
d'Oc,  and  sometimes  the  Limousin. 

§  G8.  The  Norman-French,  spoken  from  the  Loire 
to  the  confines  of  Flanders,  and  called  also  the  Lansrue 
d'Oyl,  differed  from  the  Provencal  in  (amongst  others)  the 
following  circumstances. 

1.  It  was  of  later  origin  ;  the  southern  parts  of  Gaul 
having  been  colonized  at  an  early  period  by  the  Romans. 

2.  It  was  in  geographical  contact,  not  with  the  allied 
languages  of  Spain,  but  with  the  Gothic  tongues  of  Ger- 
many and  Holland. 

§  69.  It  is  the  Norman-French  that  most  cr>pecially 
bears  upon  the  history  of  the  English  language. 

Specimen  from  the  Anglo-Norman  jioem  of 
Charlem^agnc. 

Un  jur  fu  Karloim  al  Seint-Denis  muster, 
Reout  prise  sa  corune,  en  croiz  seignat  sua  chef, 
E  ad  ceiute  sa  espee :  li  pons  fud  d'or  mer. 
Dux  i  out  c  dcmeines  e  baruns  e  cbevalers. 
Li  emperores  rcguardet  la  reine  sa  muillers. 


FROM  THE   LATIN.  41 

Ele  fut  ben  corunec  al  plus  bel  e  as  meviz. 
II  la  prist  par  le  poin  desuz  un  olivcr, 
De  sa  pleine  parole  la  prist  a  reisuner : 
"  Dame,  veistes  uakes  bume  nul  de  desuz  ceil 
Tant  ben  seist  espee  ne  la  corone  el  chef? 
Uncore  cunquen-ci-jo  citez  ot  mun  espeez." 
Cele  nc  fud  pas  sage,  folement  respondeit : 
"  Emperere,"  dist-ele,  trop  vus  poez  preiser. 
"  Uncore  en  sa-jo  un  ki  plus  se  fait  leger, 
Quant  il  porta  comne  cntre  ses  clievalers ; 
Kaunt  il  met  sur  sa  teste,  plus  belement  lui  set." 

In  the  iioi'tlicrn  French  "vre  must  recognise  not  only  a 
Celtic  and  a  Classical,  but  also  a  Gothic  clement :  since 
Clo\-is  and  Charlemagne  ■were  no  Frenchmen,  but  Ger- 
mans. The  Germanic  element  in  French  has  still  to  be 
determined. 

In  the  northern  French  of  Normandy  there  is  a  second 
Gothic  element,  viz.,  a  Scandinavian  element.    See  §  76. 


42  QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIONS 

1.  What  <iro  the  pyesent  languages  of  Wales,  the  Isle  of  Man,  tlie  Scotch 
Higlilauds,  and  Ireland  f 

2.  What  arc  the  present  languages  of  Germany  and  Holland  ?  How 
are  they  related  to  the  present  language  of  England  ?  How  to  the  original 
hinguage  of  England  \ 

3.  Enumerate  the  chief  supposed  migrations  from  Gennany  to  England, 
giving  (when  possible)  the  date  of  each,  the  particular  German  tribe 
by  which  each  was  undertaken,  and  the  parts  of  Great  Britain  where 
the  different  landings  were  made.  Why  do  I  say  supposed  migrations? 
Criticise,  in  detail,  the  evidence  by  which  they  are  supported,  and  state 
the  extent  to  which  it  is  exceptionable.  AVho  was  Beda  ?  What  were  the 
sources  of  his  information  ? 

4.  Give  reasons  for  believing  the  existence  of  Germans  in  England 
anterior  to  a.  d.  447. 

5.  Who  are  the  present  Jutlanders  of  Jutland  ?  Who  the  inhabitants 
of  the  district  called  Anglen  in  Slcswick  ?  What  are  the  reasons  for  con- 
necting these  with  the  Jutes  and  Angles  of  Beda?  What  those  for 
denying  such  a  connection  ? 

6.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  termination  -uarii  in  Cant-uarii  and 
Vect-uarii  ?  What  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  translation  of  Antiqui  Saxoncs, 
Occidentales  Saxones,  Oricntalcs  Sazones,  Mcridionales  Saxones  ?  What 
arc  the  known  variations  in  the  form  of  the  word  Vcctis,  meaning  the 
Isle  of  Wiffht  ?  What  those  of  the  root  Jut-  as  the  name  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  peninsula  of  Jutland  ? 

7.  Ti-anslate  Cantware,  Wihticare,  into  Latin.  How  does  Alfred 
tr.inslate  Jiitcc  ?  How  does  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  ?  What  is  the 
derivation  of  the  name  Carisbrook,  a  town  in  the  Isle  of  Wight? 

8.  Take  exception  to  the  opinions  that  Jutes,  from  Jutland,  formed 
part  of  the  Germanic  invasion  of  England ;  or,  rather,  take  exceptions  to 
the  evidence  upon  which  tliat  opinion  is  based. 

9.  From  what  part  of  Germany  were  the  Ancjles  derived?     What 


QUESTIONS.  43 

is  Beda's  ?  what  Ethclweai- J's  statement  concerning  tlicm  ?  WTio  -were  tho 
Atigli  of  Tacitus  ? 

10.  "Wliat  is  the  derivation  of  the  word  Mercia  ? 

11.  Give  the  localities  of  the  Old  Saxons,  and  tho  Northalbingiana. 
Investigate  the  area  occupied  by  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

12.  AVliat  is  the  present  population  of  the  Dutch  province  of  Fries- 
land  ?  "What  its  language  ?  "What  the  dialects  and  stages  of  that  lan- 
guage ? 

13.  "What  was  the  language  of  the  Asega-bog,  tlie  Heliand,  Beowulf, 
nildubraud  and  llatliubraut,  the  Carolinian  Psalms,  the  Gospels  of  Uljiu- 
lad,*  and  the  poems  of  Gysbert  Japicx  ? 

14.  Make  a  map  of  Ancient  Germany  and  Scandinavia  according  to 
languages  and  dialects  of  those  two  areas.  Exhibit,  in  a  tabular  form,  the 
languages  of  the  Gothic  stock.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  words  Gothic, 
and  Mceso- Gothic,  and  Platt-Deutsch. 

15.  Analyze  the  Scandinavian  forms  Solen,  Bordtt,  and  brennast. 

16.  Exhibit  the  difference  between  the  lofjical  and  the  historical  ana- 
lysis of  a  language. 

lY.  "What  are  the  Celtic  names  for  the  English  language? 

18.  Enumerate  the  chief  Germanic  populations  comiected  by 
ancient  wiiters  with  the  Angles,  stating  the  Ethnological  relations  of 
each,  and  noticing  the  extent  to  which  they  coincide  with  those  of  the 
Angles. 

19.  "What  are  the  reasons  for  believing  that  there  is  a  Frisian  clement 
in  the  population  of  England? 

20.  Exhibit,  in  a  tabular  form,  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the  Celtic 
stock.  To  which  division  did  the  Gallic  of  ancient  Gaul,  and  the  Pict  be- 
long ?  Support  the  answer  by  reasons.  TFliat  were  the  relations  of  tho 
Picts  to  the  GaeUc  inliabitants  of  Scotland  ?  "Wbat  to  the  Lowland  Scotch  ? 
"V\'hat  to  the  Belga;  ? 

21.  Explain  the  following  words — petorritum,  pempedida,  candctinn, 
JEpona,  Nantuates,  peann  fahcl  and  Bernicia.  "What  inferences  do  you 
draw  from  the  derivation  of  them  ? 

22.  Exhibit,  in  a  tabular  form,  the  languages  and  dialects  of  the  Clas- 
sical stock. 

23.  "What  is  the  bearing  of  the  statements  of  Tacitus  and  other  an- 
cient writers  respecting  the  following  Germanic  populations  upon  the  eth- 
nological relations  of  the  Angles, — Avioues,  Reudigni,  Sue\'i,  Langobardi, 
Frisii,  Yariui  ? 


44  QUESTIONS. 

24.  What  13  meant  l)y  tlio  folloTring  terms,  rrovcnral,  Langue  d'Oc, 
Languc  il'Oyl,  Limousin,  ami  Norman-Frcncli  ? 

25.  Wliat  languages,  bcs-idus  the  Celtic  and  Latin,  enter  into  the  com- 
position of  the  French  I 


CELTIC    ELEMENTS.  45 


PART  II. 

mSTOET  A^T)  A^^ALYSIS  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORICAL  AND  LOGICAL  ELEMLNTS  OF  THE  EXGLISII  LANGUAGE, 

§  YO.  The  Celtic  elements  of  the  present  English  full 
into  five  classes. 

1.  Those  that  are  of  late  introduction,  and  cannot  be 
called  original  and  constituent  parts  of  the  language. 
Some  of  such  are  the  words  jla7incl,  crowd  (a  fiddle), 
from  the  Cambrian ;  and  kerne  (an  Irish  foot-soldier), 
galore  (enough),  tartan,  plaid,  &c.,  from  the  Gaelic 
branch. 

2.  Those  that  are  originally  common  to  both  the  Celtic 
and  Gothic  stocks.  Some  of  such  are  brother,  mother,  in 
Celtic  hrathair,  mathair  ;  the  numerals,  &c. 

3.  Those  that  have  come  to  us  from  the  Celtic,  but 
have  come  to  us  through  the  medium  of  another  language. 
Some  of  such  are  driiid  and  hard,  "^hose  immediate  source 
is,  not  the  Celtic  but  the  Latin. 

4.  Celtic  elements  of  the  Anglo-Norman,  introduced 
into  England  after  the  Conquest,  and  occurring  in  that 
language  as  remains  of  the  original  Celtic  of  Gaul. 


46 


CELTIC  ELEMENTS. 


5.  Those  tliat  have  been  retained  from  the  original 
Celtic  of  the  island,  and  ■which  form  genuine  consti- 
tuents of  our  language.  These  fall  into  three  subdivi- 
sions. 

a.  Proper  names — generally  of  geographical  localities  ; 
as  the  Thames,  Kent,  <fcc. 

b.  Common  names  retained  in  the  provincial  dialects 
of  England,  but  not  retained  in  the  current  language  ;  as 
gwethall  =  household  stuff,  and  gwlanen=fianncl  in 
Herefordshire. 

c.  Common  names  retained  in  the  current  lant^ua^'e. — 
The  followino;  list  is  Mr.  Garnett's  : — 


Welsh. 

English. 

Welsh. 

English. 

Basgawd 

Basket. 

GreideU 

Grid  in  Gridi 

Berfa 

Barrow. 

Grual 

Gruel. 

Botwm 

Button. 

Gwald  (hem 

I  Welt. 

Brdn 

JBran. 

border) 

Clwt 

Clout,  Rcuj. 

Gwiced  (Utile 

I  Wicket. 

Crocban 

Crockery. 

door) 

Crog 

Crook,  Hook. 

Gwn 

Gown. 

Cwch 

Cock,  in  Cock-boat. 

Gwyfr 

Wire. 

Cwysed 

Gusset. 

Masg    (stitch 

I  Mesh. 
Mattock 

Cjl,  Cyln 

Kiln    {Kill,     pro- 
vinc). 

in  netting 
Mattog 

Dautacth 

Dainty. 

Mop 

Mop. 

Dam 

Darn. 

Rhail 

I  Rail. 
■Rasher 

Dceutur 

j  Tenter,  in     Tenter- 
{      hook. 

(fence) 
Rhashg 

Fflaim 

Fleam,    Cattlc-hm- 
cet. 

(slice) 

Rhuwch 

Bug. 

Fflaw 

Flaw. 

SaAvduriaAv 

Solder. 

Ffynnell 

j-  Funnel. 

Syth  (glue) 

Size. 

(air-hole) 

Tacl 

Tackle. 

Gefjn  (fetter 

Gyve.                         1 

§  71.  Latin  of  the  first  period. — Of  the  Latin  intro- 
duced by  Caesar  and  his  successors,  the  few  words  re- 


DAXISU  ELEMENTS,  47 

maining  arc  those  that  rcLite  to  military  affairs ;  viz. 
street  {strata);  -coin  (as  in  Lincoln=  Lindi  colonia)] 
-cest-  (as  in  Gloucester =glevcB  castra)  from  castra. 
The  Latin  words  introduced  between  the  time  of  Cajsar 
and  Ilcngist  may  be  called  the  Latin  of  the  first  period^ 
or  the  Latin  of  the  Celtic  period. 

§  72.  The  Anglo-Saxon. — This  is  not  noticed  here, 
because,  from  being  the  staple  of  the  present  language,  it 
is  more  or  less  the  subject  of  the  book  throughout. 

§  73.  The  Danish,  or  Norse. — The  pirates  that  pil- 
laged Britain,  under  the  name  of  Danes,  were  not  exclu- 
sively the  inhabitants  of  Denmark.  Of  the  three  Scan- 
dinavian nations,  the  Swedes  took  the  least  share,  tlie 
Norwegians  the  greatest,  in  these  invasions. 

The  language  of  the  three  nations  was  the  same  ;  the 
differences  being  differences  of  dialect.  It  was  that 
Avhich  is  now  spoken  in  Iceland,  having  been  once  com- 
mon to  Scandinavia  and  Denmark. 

The  Danish  that  became  incorporated  with  our  lan- 
guage, under  the  reign  of  Canute  and  his  sons,  may  be 
called  the  direct  Danish  element,  in  contradistinction  to 
the  indirect  Danish  of  §  76. 

The  determination  of  the  amount  of  Danish  in  English 
is  difficult.  It  is  not  difficult  to  prove  a  word  Scandina- 
vian ;  but,  then,  we  must  also  show  that  it  is  not  Ger- 
man as  well.  A  few  years  back  the  current  opinion  was 
afjainst  the  doctrine  that  there  was  much  Danish  in  Enir- 
land.  At  present,  the  tendency  is  rather  the  other  way. 
The  following  facts  are  from  Mr.  Garnett. — "  Phil,  Trans." 
vol.  i. 

1.  The  Saxon  name  of  the  present  town  of  Whifh)/  in 
Yorkshire  was  Strconeshalch.  The  present  name  Whith}/, 
Hvitb]/,  or  Whitetoivn,  is  Danish. 


4:8  DANISH  ELEMENTS. 

2.  The  Saxon  name  of  the  capital  of  Derbyshire  was 
NortJiwcortJicg.     The  present  name  is  Danish. 

3.  The  termination  -hi/  =  town  is  Norse. 

4.  On  a  monument  in  Aldburgh  church,  Holderncssc, 
in  the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  referred  to  the  age  of 
EdAvard  the  Confessor,  is  found  the  followmg  inscrip- 
tion : — 

Ulf  het  arasran  cyrice  for  haman  and  for  Gunthara  saula. 
"  Ulf  bid  rear  the  church  for  him  and  for  the  soul  of  Gunthar." 

Now,  in  this  inscription,  Ulf,  in  opposition  to  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Widf,  is  a  Norse  form ;  whilst  hanum  is  a 
Norse  dative,  and  by  no  means  an  Anglo-Saxon  one. — 
Old  Norse  hamim,  Swedish  honojn. 

5.  The  use  of  at  for  to  as  the  sign  of  the  infinitive 
mood  is  Norse,  not  Saxon.  It  is  the  regular  prefix 
in  Icelandic,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Eeroic.  It  is  also 
found  in  the  northern  dialects  of  the  Old  English,  and 
in  the  particular  dialect  of  Westmoreland  at  the  present 
day. 

G.  The  use  of  sum  for  as  ;  e,  g:, — swa  sum  we  for- 
give oure  detturs. 

7.  Isolated  words  in  the  northern  dialects  are  Norse 
rather  than  Saxon. 

Ahorse. 
Braas,  SwecL 
Eld,  Dan. 
Fors,  J).  Swcd. 
Gora,  Steed. 
Gil,  Iceland. 
Grata,  Iceland. 
Kiod=flesh,  Dan. 
Lede,  Dan. 
Lade,  Datu 
Lille,  Datu 


Provincial. 

Common  Dialect. 

Braid 

Resemble 

Eldin 

Firing 

Force 

Waterfall 

Gar 

Make 

GiU 

Ravine 

Greet 

Weep 

Ket 

Car  r  1071 

Lait 

Seek 

Lathe 

Bam 

Lile 

Little 

^VNGLO-Norv:^rAX  elements.  49 

§  74.  Roman  of  the  second  period. — Of  the  Latin 
iiitroduccd  under  tlic  Christianised  Saxon  sovereigns, 
many  words  arc  extant.  The  relate  chiefly  to  ecclesi- 
astical matters,  just  as  the  Latin  of  the  Celtic  period 
bore  upon  military  affairs.  Mynster,  a  minster,  raonas- 
terium ;  jiortic,  a  porch,  j^ortlciis ;  cluster,  a  cloister, 
claustrum  ;  niiimic,  a  monk,  monacJms  ;  bisceop,  a  bishop, 
episcopus;  ar ceh Isceop,  archhisho]),  archicpiscopiis ;  sa?iCt, 
a  saiiit,  sanctus;  jirofost,  a  provost,  propositus ;  pall,  a 
pall,  paZ/iifw;  calic,  a  chalice,  calix ;  candel,  a  candle, 
candela;  psalter,  a  psalter,  j)salterium ;  mmsse,  amass, 
Quissa;  j^istel,  an  epistle,  cpistola;  jjradic-ian,  to  preach, 
prcedicare ;  prof-ian,  to  prove,  prohare. 

The  following  are  the  names  of  foreign  plants  and  ani- 
mals:— ca?nell,  a  camel,  ca7nelus ;  yip,  elephant,  elcphas; 
iicheam,  fig-tree,  Jicus;  feferfuge,  feverfew,  fchrifuga; 
peterselige,  parsley,  petroselinum. 

Others  are  the  names  of  articles  of  foreign  origin,  as 
piper,  pepper,  piper;  purpur,  purple,  purpura;  pu?nic- 
stan,  pumicestone,  pumex. 

This  is  the  Latin  of  the  second,  or  Saxon  period. 

§  T5.  The  Anglo-Norman  element. — For  practical 
purposes  we  may  say  that  the  French  or  Anglo-Norman 
element  appeared  in  our  language  after  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  a.  d.  1066. 

Previous,  however,  to  that  period  we  find  notices  of  in- 
tercourse between  the  two  countries. 

1.  The  residence  in  England  of  Louis  Outremer. 

2.  Ethelred  II.  married  Emma,  daughter  of  Richard 
Duke  of  Normandy,  and  the  two  children  were  sent  to 
Normandy  for  education. 

3.  Edward  the  Confessor  is  particularly  stated  to 
have  encouraged  French  manners  and  the  French  lan- 
guage in  England. 

'  4 


60  ANGLO-NORMAN  ELEMENTS 

4.  Ingulplius  of  Croydon  speaks  of  his  own  knowledge 
of  French. 

5.  Harold  passed  sonic  time  in  Normandy. 

G.  The  French  article  la,  in  the  term  la  Drove,  occurs 
in  a  deed  of  a.  d.  975. 

The  chief  Anglo-Norman  elements  of  our  language  are 
the  terms  connected  Avith  the  feudal  system,  the  terms 
relating  to  war  and  chivalry,  and  a  great  portion  of  the 
law  terms — duke,  count,  baron,  villain,  service,  chivalry, 
warrant,  esquire,  challenge,  dotnaifi,  (fcc. 

§  76.  When  we  remember  that  the  word  Norman 
means  man  of  the  north,  that  it  is  a  Scandinavian,  and 
not  a  French  word,  that  it  originated  in  the  invasions  of 
the  followers  of  Rollo  and  and  other  Norwegians,  and  that 
just  as  part  of  England  was  overrun  by  Pagan  bucca- 
neers called  Danes,  part  of  France  was  occupied  by 
similar  Northmen,  we  see  the  likelihood  of  certain  Norse 
words  finding  their  way  into  the  French  language, 
where  they  would  be  superadded  to  its  original  Celtic  and 
Roman  elements. 

The  extent  to  which  this  is  actually  the  case  has  only 
been  partially  investigated.  It  is  certain,  however,  that 
some  French  words  are  Norse  or  Scandinavian.  Such, 
for  instance,  are  several  names  of  geographical  localities 
either  near  the  sea,  or  the  river  Seine,  in  other  words, 
witliin  that  tract  which  was  most  especially  occupied  by 
the  invaders.  As  is  to  be  expected  from  the  genius  of 
the  French  language,  these  w^ords  are  considerably  altered 
in  form.     Thus, 


NORSE. 

ENGLISH. 

FRENCH. 

Toft 

Toft 

Tot. 

Beck 

Beck 

Bee. 

Flot 

Fleet* 

Fleur,  &C. 

*  MeaDiiig  ditch 

LATIN   OF   FOURTH   PEEIOD.  61 

and  in  these  shapes  they  appear  in  the  Norman  names 
Yvetot,  Caiidehec,  and  Harjieur,  (fcc. 

Now  any  words  thus  introduced  from  the  Norse  of 
Scandinana  into  the  French  of  Normandy,  might,  by 
the  Norman  Conquest  of  England,  be  carried  further,  and 
so  find  their  way  into  the  English. 

In  such  a  case,  they  "would  constitute  its  indirect 
Scandinavian  element. 

A  list  of  these  words  has  not  been  made ;  indeed 
the  question  requires  far  more  investigation  than  it 
has  met  with.  The  names,  however,  of  the  islands 
Guerns-cy,  Jcrs-ey,  and  Aldern-ey^  are  certainly  of  the 
kind  in  question — since  the  -ey,  meaning  island,  is  the 
same  as  the  -ey  in  Orkm-ey,  and  is  the  Norse  rather  than 
the  Saxon  form. 

§  7T.  Latin  of  the  third  jieriod. — This  mcanfe  the 
Latin  which  was  introduced  between  the  battle  of 
Hastings  and  the  re\ival  of  literature.  It  chiefly  ori- 
ginated in  the  cloister,  in  the  universities^  and,  to  a 
certain  extent,  in  the  courts  of  law.  It  inuKt  be  distin- 
guished from  the  indirect  Latin  introdiioed  as  part  and 
parcel  of  the  Anglo-Norman.  It  haa  yet  to  be  accu- 
rately analyzed. 

§  78.  Latin  of  the  fourth  period.-  -This  means  the 
Latin  which  has  been  introduced  between  the  revival  of 
literature  and  the  present  time.  It  has  originated  in  the 
writings  of  learned  men  in  general,  and  is  distinguished 
from  that  of  the  previous  periods  by : 

1.  Being  less  altered  in  form : 

2.  Preserving,  with  substantives,  in  many  cases  its 
original  inflections ;  axis,  axes  ;  has^is,  bases : 

3.  Relating  to  objects  and  ideas  for  which  the 
increase  of  the  range  of  science  in  general  has  required 
a  nomenclature. 


52  LATIN  OF  FOURTn   PERIOD. 

§  79.  Greek. — Words  derived  directly  from  the 
Greek  are  in  tlie  same  predicament  as  the  Latin  of  the 
third  period — phccnomenon,  ])h(D7iojncna  ;  criterion^  crite- 
ria^ &c. ;  words  T>hich  arc  only  indirectly  of  Greek 
origin,  being  considered  to  belong  to  the  language  from 
"which  they  •were  immediately  introduced  into  the  English. 
Such  arc  deacon,  ^:)rie5^,  »fcc.,  introduced  through  the 
Latin.  Hence  a  word  like  church  proves  no  more  in 
regard  to  a  Greek  element  in  English,  than  the  word 
ahhot  proves  in  respect  to  a  Syrian  one. 

§  80.  The  Latin  of  the  fourth  period  and  the  Greek 
agree  in  retaining,  in  many  cases,  original  inflexions 
rather  than  adopting  the  English  ones  ;  in  other  words, 
they  agree  in  being  but  i7Jiperfectly  incorporated.  The 
phenomenon  of  imperfect  incorporation  is  reducible  to  the 
following  rules  : — 

1.  That  it  has  a  direct  ratio  to  the  date  of  the  intro- 
duction, i.e.,  the  more  recent  the  word  the  more  likely  it 
is  to  retain  its  original  inflexion.    . 

2.  That  it  has  a  relation  to  the  number  of  meanings 
belonging  to  the  words :  thus,  when  a  single  word  has 
two  meanings,  the  original  inflexion  expresses  one,  the 
English  inflexion  another — getiius,  genii,  often  {spirits), 
geniuses  {inen  of  genius). 

3.  That  it  occurs  mth  substantives  onl}^,  and  that  only 
in  the  expression  of  number.  Thus,  although  the  plural 
of  substantives  like  axis  and  genius  are  Latin,  the  posses- 
sive cases  are  English.  So  also  are  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison for  adjectives,  like  circular,  and  the  tenses,  &c. 
for  verbs,  like  peramhidate. 

§  81.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  chief  Latin  sub- 
Btantives  introduced  during  the  latter  part  of  the  fourth 
period  ;  and  preserving  the  Latin  plural  forms — 


LATIN   OF   FOUETn   rERIOD. 


53 


FIRST  CLASS. 
Words  whcrcui  the  Latin  plural  is  the  same  as  the  Latin  singular. 


Sing. 

riur. 

Apparatus 

apparatus 

Hiatus 

hiatus 

Impetus 

iiiipet;«« 

(6)  Sing. 

Plur. 

Caries 

cariej 

Congeries 

congeries 

Series 

series 

Species 

species 

Superficies      superficies 


SECOND  CLASS. 

Words  ichcrcin  the  Latin  j^lural  is  formed  from  the  latin  singidar  by 
changing  the  last  syllable. 

(a). —  Where  the  singular  termination  -a  is  changed  in  the  plural 
into  -ae : — 


Sing. 

Flur. 

Sing. 

Flur. 

Formula 

formulfc 

Nebula 

nebulcc 

Lamina 

lamincE 

Scoria 

scoria;. 

Larva 

larva? 

(J). —  ^licre  the  singular  termination  -us  is  changed  in  the  jjlural 
intc  -i : — 


Sing.  Flur. 

Calculws  calculi 

Colossus  colossi 

Convolvulus  convolvul* 

Focfts  foci 

GeniMS  genii 

MagMS  magi 

Nautilus  nautili 

CEsopliagus  oesophagi 


Sing.  Flur. 

Polypus  polypi 

Radius  radii 

Ranunculus  ranunculi 

Sarcophagus  sarcophagi 

Schirrhws  schirrhi 

Stimulus  stimuli 

Tumulus  tumuli 


(c). —  ^^^lcre  the  sivgidar  te-nnination  -urn  is  changed  in  the  i^lural 
into  -a: — 


Sing.  Flur. 

Animalculu?)!  animalcula 

ArcanM??i  arcana 

Collyriu??!  collyria 

Datu;«  data 

Desideratuwi  do*iderata 


Sing.  Plur. 

Effluvi«»i  effluvia 

Emporiuwi  emporia 

Encomiu?H  encomia 

ErratM7?i  errata 

GymnasiuHi  gymnasia 


54 


LATIN"   OF   FOURTH   TEIIIOD. 


Si7iff. 

riur. 

Lixivium 

lixivia 

LustrK»i 

lustra 

Mausole?«n 

mausolca 

Medium 

media 

Memorandwwj 

memoraiulfj 

McDstru7««  * 

menstrua 

Momeutwwt 

momenta 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Prcmii«/t 

jircmia 

Sclioli«/?i 

scholia 

SpectrMJw 

spectra 

Specul?«n 

specula 

Strat?^/n 

strata 

Sv.cccclanci<?/i   succedanea. 


(d). —  Where  the  sinr/ular  termination  -is  25  changed  iti  the  j)hiral 
into  -es : — 


Sing.  Plur. 

Amanuenses  amanuenses 

Analysz's  analyses 

Antithesis  antitheses 

Axis  axes 

Basis  bases 

Crisis  crises 


Diaeresis 


diaereses 


Sing.  Plur. 

Ellipsis  ellipses 

Emphasis  emphases 

Hypothesis  hypotheses 

Oasis  oases 

Parenthesis  parentheses 

Synthesis  syntheses 


Thesis 


theses 


THIRD  CLASS. 

Words  wherein  the  plural  is  formed  by  inserting  -e  between  the  last 

two  sounds  of  the  singular,  so  that  the  former  manber  always  contains  a 
syllable  more  than  the  latter  : — 

Sing.  Plur. 

Apex               sounded        apec-s  apices 

Appendix            —             appendic-s  appendices 

Calix                    —            calic-s  cahces 

Cicatrix                —            cicatric-s  cicatrices 

Helix                   —            helic-s  lichees 

Index                   —            indoc-s  indices 

Radix                   —            radic-s  radices 

Vertex                 —            vertec-s  vertices 

Vortex                 —            vortcc-s  vortices 

In  all  these  words  tlie  c  of  the  singular  number  is  sounded  as  k;  of  tlie 
plural,  as  s. 


\    82.    Tlic  followIn;i;  is   a  list  of  tlic   chief  Greek 


MISCELLANEOUS  ELEMENTS. 


55 


substantives  lately  introduced,  and  preserving  tlic  Greek 
plural  forms — 

FIRST    CLASS. 

Worda  where  the  singular  termination  -oa  is  changed  in  the  plural 
into  -a : — 


Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Aphelion 

aplielia 

Criteriore 

criteria 

Perilielioi'4 

perihelia 

Ephemero/t 

ephemera 

Automato/i 

automata 

rhaeaomenou 

phzenomeua. 

SECOND 

CLASS. 

Words  Kliere  the  plural  is  formed  from  the  original  rvot  bg  adding 
either  -es  or  -a,  but  wlccre  the  singular  rejects  the  last  letter  of  tlie  original 
root. 

Plurals  in  -es : — 


Original  root. 
Apsid- 
Cantharid- 

Plur. 
apsides 
cantharides 

Sing. 
apsis 
cantharis 

Chrysalid- 

Ephemerid- 

Tripod- 

chrysalides 

ephemerides 

tripodes 

Plurals  in  -a : — 

chrysalis 

ephcmerJ3 

tripos. 

Original  root. 
Dogma  t- 
Lemmat- 

Plur. 

dogmata 

lemmata 

Sing. 
dogma 
leimna 

Miasmat- 

miasmata 

miaama.* 

k  8-3.  Miscellaneous  elements. — Of  miscellaneous  ele- 
ments we  have  two  sorts  ;  those  that  are  incorporated 
in  our  language,  and  are  currently  understood  (e.  ^.,  the 
Spanish  word  sherry,  the  Arabic  word  alkali,  and  the 
Persian  word  tiirhan),  and  those  that,  even  amongst  the 
educated,  arc  considered  strangers.     Of  this  latter  kind 

*  This  list   is   tatea  from    Smart's   ViUuable  and    logical    English 
Grammar. 


5G  illSCELLANEOUS  ELEMENTS. 

(amongst  many  others)  arc  the  oriental  words  luunmum, 
kaftan,  gul,  &.c. 

Of  the  currently  understood  miscellaneous  elements  of 
the  English  language,  the  most  important  are  from  the 
French  ;  some  of  which  agree  with  those  of  the  Latin  of 
the  fourth  ptriod,  and  the  Greek,  in  preserving  the  French 
plural  forms — as  bean,  beaux,  billets-doux. 

Italian. — ^6ome  words  of  Italian  origin  do  the  same ; 
as  virtuoso,  virtuosi. 

Hebrew. — The  Hebrew  words,  cherub  and  seraph  do 
the  same ;  the  form  cherub-im,  and  seraph-hn  being  not 
only  plurals  but  Hebrew  plurals. 

Beyond  the  words  derived  from  these  five  languages, 
none  form  their  plural  other  than  after  the  English 
method,  i.  e.,  in  -s,  as  waltzes,  from  the  German  word 
loaltz. 

§  84.  Hence  Ave  have  a  measure  of  the  extent  to  which 
a  language,  which,  like  the  English,  at  one  and  the  same 
time  requires  names  for  many  objects,  comes  in  contact 
with  the  tongues  of  half  the  world,  and  has  moreover, 
a  great  power  of  incorporating  foreign  elements,  derives 
fresh  words  from  varied  sources  ;  as  may  be  seen  from 
the  following  incomplete  notice  of  the  languages  which 
have,  in  different  degrees,  supplied  it  with  new  terms. 

Arabic. — Admiral,  alchemist,  alchemy,  alcohol,  alcove, 
alembic,  algebra,  alkali,  assassin. 

Persian. — Tui-ban,  caravan,  dervise,  &c. 

Turkish. — Coffee,  bashaw,  divan,  scimitar,  janisary, 
etc. 

Hindoo  languages. — Calico,  chintz.  coAvi-ic,  curry,  lac, 
muslin,  toddy,  &c. 

Chinese. — Tea.  buhca,  congou,  hyson,  soy,  nankin 
v.tc. 


MISCELLANEOUS  ELEMENTS.  57 

Malay. — Bantam  (fowl),  gamboge,  rattan,  sago,  shad- 
dock, (fcc. 

Polynesian. — Taboo,  tattoo. 

Tungusian  or  some  similar  Siberian  language. — 
Mammoth,  the  bones  of  which  arc  chiefly  from  the  banks 
of  the  Lena. 

North  American  Indian. — Squaw,  wigwam,  pemmi- 
can. 

Peruvian. — Charki  =  prepared  meat ;  whence  jerked 
beef. 

Caribbean. — Hammock. 

§.  85.  A  distinction  is  drawn  between  the  direct  and 
indirect^  the  latter  leading  to  the  idtimate  origin  of 
words. 

Thus  a  word  borrowed  into  the  English  from  the 
French,  might  have  been  borrowed  into  the  French  from 
the  Latin,  into  the  Latin  from  the  Greek,  into  the  Greek 
from  the  Persian,  <fcc.,  and  so  ad  infinitum. 

The  investigation  of  this  is  a  matter  of  literary  curio- 
sity rather  than  any  important  branch  of  philology. 

The  ultimate  known  origin  of  many  common  words 
sometimes  goes  back  to  a  great  date,  and  points  to  extinct 
languages — 

Ancient  Nubian. — Barbarous. 

Ancient  Egyptian. — Ammonia. 

Ancient  Syrian. — Cyder. 

Ancient  Lycian. — Bandar. 

A7icient  Lydian. — INIceander. 

Ancient  Persian. — Paradise. 

§  8G.  Again,  a  word  from  a  given  language  may  be 
introduced  by  more  lines  than  one ;  or  it  may  be  intro- 
duced twice  over ;  once  at  an  earlici*,  and  again  at  a 
later  period.  In  such  a  case  its  form  will,  most  pro- 
bably, vary ;  and,  what  is  more,  its  meaning  as  well. 
4* 


68  MISCELLANEOUS  ELEMENTS. 

Words  of  lliis  sort  may  be  called  dl-?7iorphic,  their  dv 
tnorphistn  having  originated  in  one  of  two  reasons — a 
difference  of  channel  or  a  difference  of  date.  Instances 
of  the  first  are,  st/ntp,  sherbet,  and  shrub,  all  originally 
from  the  Arabic,  srb ;  but  introduced  differently,  viz., 
the  first  through  the  Latin,  the  second  through  the  Per- 
sian, and  the  third  through  the  Hindoo.  Instances  of 
the  second  are  words  like  tninster,  introduced  during  the 
Anglo-Saxon,  as  contrasted  -with  monastery,  introduced 
during  the  Anglo-Norman  period.  By  the  proper  ap- 
plication of  these  processes,  we  account  for  words  so  dif- 
ferent in  present  form,  yet  so  identical  in  origin,  as  priest 
and  presbyter,  episcopal  and  bishop,  c^'c. 

§  87.  Distinction. — The  history  of  the  languages  that 
have  been  spoken  in  a  particular  country,  is  a  different 
subject  from  the  history  of  a  particular  language.  The 
history  of  the  languages  that  have  been  spoken  in  the 
United  States  of  America,  is  the  history  of  Indian  lan- 
guages. The  history  of  the  languages  of  the  United 
States  is  the  history  of  a  Germanic  language. 

§  88.  Words  of  foreign  simulating  a  vernacular  ori- 
gin.— These  may  occur  in  any  mixed  language  Avhatever  ; 
they  occur,  however,  oftener  in  the  English  than  in  any 
other. 

Let  a  word  be  introduced  from  a  foreitm  languaixe 
■ — let  it  have  some  resemblance  in  sound  to  a  real  Eno-lish 
term :  lastly,  let  the  meanmgs  of  the  two  words  be  not 
absolutely  incompatible.  We  may  then  have  a  vrord 
of  foreign  origin  taking  the  appearance  of  an  English 
one.  Such,  amongst  others,  are  beefeater,  from  bccuf- 
fcticr  ;  sparrow-grass,  asparagus;  JShotover,  Chateau- 
Vert  ;'*  Jerusalem,   Girasole  ;t  Spanish  beefeater^  spina 

*  As  in  Shotovcr  Ili/l,  near  Oxford. 
f  A3  in  Jerusalem  artichoke. 


MISCELLANEOLTS  ELEMENTS.  69 

bifida ;  periiDig;  j^Gruke ;  runagate,  renegade ;  lutc- 
ittring,  liistrino  ;*  O  yes,  Oijez  !  ancient,  ensign.t 

Dog-cheap. — This  has  nothing  to  do  Avith  dogs.  The 
first  syllable  is  god = good  transposed,  and  the  second 
the  ch-p  in  chajwian  {  =  merchant)  cheap,  and  East- 
cheap.  In  Sir  J.  ]Mandcville,  "\vc  find  god-kepe=  good 
bargain. 

Sky-larking. — Nothing  to  do  -with  larks  of  any  sort ; 
still  less  the  particular  species,  alaiida  arvensis.  The 
"vvord  improperly  spelt  l-a-r-k,  and  banished  to  the  slang 
regions  of  the  English  language,  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  lac 
==^game,  or  sport  ;  "uhcrein  the  a  is  sounded  as  in  father 
(not  as  in  farther).  Lek=game,  in  the  present  Scan- 
dinavian lan^uajres. 

j^achary  Macaulay  ^  Ziunalacarregui  ;  Billy  liuf- 
jian  =  Bellerophon  ;  Sir  Roger  Dowlas  =  Surajah  Dow- 
lah,  although  so  limited  to  the  common  soldiers  and 
sailors,  who  first  used  them,  as  to  be  exploded  vulgarisms 
rather  than  integral  parts  of  the  language,  are  examples 
of  the  same  tendency  towards  the  irregular  accommodation 
of  misunderstood  foreign  terms. 

Birdbolt. — An  incorrect  name  for  the  gadns  lota,  or 
ell-pout,  and  a  transformation  of  barbote. 

Whistle-fish. — The  same  hr  gadus  mustela,  or  iccasel- 
fish. 

Liquorice  ^  glycyrrhiza. 

WoriniDood  =  iceremuth,  is  an  instance  of  a  word  from 
the  same  language,  in  an  antiquated  shape,  being  equally 
transformed  with  a  word  of  really  foreign  origin. 

§  89.  Sometimes  the  transformation  of  the  name  has 

engendered  a  change  in  the  object  to  which  it  applies, 

or,  at  least,  has  evolved  new  ideas  in  connection  with  it. 

Uow  easy  for  a  person  Avho  used  the  words  bccf-eater. 

*  A  sort  of  silk.  f  Aitcicut  Cassio — "Othello." 


60  MISCELLANEOUS  ELEMENTS. 

sparrow-g'7'ass,  or  Jerusalem;  to  believe  that  the  officers 
dcsigiiatcd  by  the  former  cither  cat  or  used  to  cat  more 
beef  than  any  other  people  ;  that  the  second  word  ^yas  the 
name  for  a  grass  or  herb  of  which  sparrows  were  fond ; 
and  that  Jerusalem  artichokes  came  from  Palestine. 

What  has  just  been  supposed  has  sometimes  a  real 
occurrence.  To  account  for  the  name  of  Shotover-hill,  I 
have  heard  that  Little  John  shot  over  it.  Here  the 
confusion,  in  order  to  set  itself  right,  breeds  a  fiction. 
Again,  in  chess,  the  piece  now  called  the  queen,  was 
originally  the  elephant.  This  was  in  Persian,  ferz. 
In  French  it  became  vierge,  which,  in  time,  came  to  be 
mistaken  for  a  derivative,  and  virgo  =  t]ie  virgin,  the 
lady,  the  queen. 

§  90.  Sometimes,  where  the  form  of  a  word  in  re- 
spect to  its  sound  is  not  affected,  a  false  spirit  of  accom- 
modation introduces  an  unetymological  spelling  :  as 
frontispiece,  from  frontispecium,  sovereign,  from  sov- 
rano,  colleague  from  collega,  lant\iorn  (old  orthography) 
from  lanterna. 

The  value  of  forms  like  these  consists  in  their  showing 
that  language  is  affected  by  false  etymologies  as  well  as 
by  true  ones. 

§  91.  In  lambkin  and  lancet,  the  final  syllables  {-kin 
and  -et)  have  the  same  power.  They  both  express  the 
idea  of  smallness  or  diminutiveness.  These  words  are 
but  two  out  of  a  multitude,  the  one  {lamb)  being  of 
Saxon,  the  other  {lance)  of  Norman  origin.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  the  superadded  syllables :  -ki7i  being 
Saxon  ;  -et  Norman.  Now  to  add  a  Saxon  termination 
to  a  Norman  word,  or  vice  versa,  is  to  corrupt  the  English 
language. 

This  leads  to  some  observation  respecting  the — 


MISCELLAXEOUS  ELEMENTS.  61 

§  92,  Introduction  of  new  words  and  Ilyhridisni. — 
Hybridism  is  a  term  derived  from  hyhrid-a,  a  mongrel ; 
a  Latin  "word  of  Greek  extraction. 

The  terminations  -ize  (as  in  criticize),  -ism  (as  in  crit- 
icisyn),  -ic  (as  in  cojnic) — these,  amongst  many  others,  are 
Greek  terminations.  To  add  them  to  "svords  not  of  Greek 
origin  is  to  be  guilty  of  hybridism.  Hence,  witticism  is 
objectionable. 

The  terminations  -hie  (as  in  penetradc),  -hility  (as  in 
jienetr ability),  -al  (as  in  parental) — these,  amongst  many 
others,  are  Latin  terminations.  To  add  them  to  Tvords  not 
of  Latin  origin  is  to  be  guilty  of  hybridism. 

Hybridism  is  the  commonest  fault  that  accompanies 
the  introduction  of  new  "words.  The  hybrid  additions  to 
the  English  language  are  most  numerous  in  "works  on  sci- 
ence. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  concealed  that  several  well 
established  words  are  hybrid ;  and  that,  even  in  the  wri- 
tings of  the  classical  Koman  authors,  there  is  hybrithsm 
between  the  Latin  and  the  Greek. 

Nevertheless,  the  etymological  view  of  every  word  of 
foreign  origin  is,  not  that  it  is  put  together  in  England, 
but  that  it  is  brought  whole  from  the  language  to  which  it 
is  vernacular.  Now  no  derived  word  can  be  brought  whole 
from  a  language  unless,  in  that  language,  all  its  parts  ex- 
ist. The  word  penetrability  is  not  derived  from  the  Eng- 
lish word  i^enctrable,  by  the  addition  of  -ty.  It  is  the 
Latin  word  penetrahilitas  imported. 

In  derived  tcords  all  the  parts  must  belong  to  one  and 
the  same  language,  or,  changing  the  expression,  every 
derived  word  must  have  a  possible  form  in  the  language 
from  which  it  is  tahen.  Such  is  the  rule  agamst  hy- 
bridism. 

§  93.  A  true  word  sometimes  takes  the  appearance  of 


62  MISCELLANEOUS  ELEMENTS. 

a  hybrid  witliout  really  being  so.  The  -ide,  in  icicle,  is 
apparently  the  same  as  the  -icle  in  radicle.  Now,  as  ice 
is  Gothic,  and  -icle  classical,  hybridism  is  simulated.  Icicle, 
however,  is  not  a  derivative  but  a  compound ;  its  parts  be- 
ing is  and  g'iccl,  both  Anglo-Saxon  words.* 

§  94.  On  incompletion  of  the  radical. — Let  there  be 
in  a  given  language  a  series  of  roots  ending  in  -t,  as  sccmat. 
Let  a  euphonic  influence  eject  the  -t,  as  often  as  the  word 
occurs  in  the  nominative  case.  Let  the  nominative  case 
be  erroneously  considered  to  represent  the  root,  or  radical, 
of  the  word.  Let  a  derivative  word  be  formed  accord- 
ingly, i.  e.,  on  the  notion  that  the  nominative  form  and  the 
radical  form  coincide.  Such  a  derivative  will  exhibit  only 
a  part  of  the  root ;  in  other  Avords,  the  radical  will  be  in- 
complete. 

Now  all  this  is  what  actually  takes  place  in  words  like 
hamo-ptysis  {spitting  of  blood),  scma-jihore  {a  sort  of 
telegrapJi).  The  Greek  imparisyllabics  eject  a  part  of  the 
root  in  the  nominative  case  ;  the  radical  forms  being  hce- 
mat-  and  sccmat-,  not  hcErn-  and  seem-. 

Incompletion  of  the  radical  is  one  of  the  commonest 
causes  of  vrords  being  coined  faultily.  It  must  not,  how- 
ever, be  concealed,  that  even  in  the  classical  writers,  we 
have  in  words  like  Biaro/xos  examples  of  incompletion  of 
the  radical. 

*  *    .  #  #  #  « 

§  95.  The  preceding  chapters  have  paved  the  way  for 
a  distinction  between  the  historical  analysis  of  a  language, 
and  the  logical  analysis  of  one. 

Let  the  present  language  of  England  (for  illustration's 
sake  only)  consist  of  40,000  words.     Of  these  let  30,000 

*  Be  she  coustaut,  be  she  fickle, 
Be  slio  flauic,  or  be  .she  ickle. 

Silt  C.  Skdi.et, 


m:iscell,\:n"eous  elements.  63 

be  Anglo-Saxon,  5,000  Anglo-Norman,  100  Celtic,  10 
Latin  of  the  first,  20  Latin  of  tlie  second,  and  30  Latin  of 
tlic  third  period,  50  Scandmavian,  and  the  rest  miscellane- 
ous. In  this  case  the  language  is  considered  according  to 
the  historical  origin  of  the  words  that  compose  it,  and  the 
analysis  is  an  historical  analysis. 

]Jut  it  is  very  evident  that  the  English,  or  any  other 
language,  is  capable  of  being  contemplated  in  another 
view,  and  that  the  same  number  of  words  may  be  very  dif- 
ferently classified.  Instead  of  arranging  them  according 
to  the  languages  whence  they  are  derived,  let  them  be 
disposed  according  to  the  meanings  that  they  convey. 
Let  it  be  said,  for  instance,  that  out  of  40,000  words, 
10,000  are  the  names  of  natural  objects,  that  1000  denote 
abstract  ideas,  that  1000  relate  to  warflire,  1000  to  church 
matters,  500  to  points  of  chivalry,  1000  to  agriculture, 
and  so  on  through  the  whole.  In  this  case  the  analysis 
is  not  historical  but  logical ;  the  words  bcino;  classed 
not  according  to  their  origin,  but  according  to  their 
?ncani}ig: 

Now  the  logical  and  historical  anal^'ses  of  a  language 
generally  in  some  degree  coincide ;  that  is,  terms  for  a 
certain  set  of  ideas  come  from  certain  languages  ;  just  as 
in  English  a  large  proportion  of  our  chemical  terms  arc 
Arabic,  whilst  a  still  larger  one  of  our  legal  ones  are 
An<ilo-Norman. 


64  RELATIOX   OF  THE   ENGLISH. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE  RELATION  OF  THE  ENGLISH  TO  THE  ANGLO-SAJXOX,  AN'D 
THE  STAGES  OF  THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 

§  96.  The  relation  of  the  present  English  to  the  An- 
glo-Saxon is  that  of  a  modern  language  to  an  ancient 
one :  the  ■n'ords  modern  and  ancient  being  used  in  a  de- 
fined and  technical  sense. 

Let  the  word  smi^nm  illustrate  this.  Smi^-nm,  the 
dative  plural  of  smi^,  is  equivalent  in  meaning  to  the 
English  to  smiths,  or  to  the  Latin  fahr-is.  Smi'tum, 
however,  is  a  single  Anglo-Saxon  word  (a  substantive, 
and  nothing  more) ;  whilst  its  English  equivalent  is  two 
words  {i.  e.,  a  substantive  with  the  addition  of  a  preposi- 
tion). The  letter  5,  in  S7jiiths,  shows  that  the  word  is  plu- 
ral. The  -um,  in  sini^um.  does  this  and  sometliin'o-  more. 
It  is  the  sign  of  the  dative  case  plural.  The  -um  in 
smi'^um,  is  the  part  of  a  word.  The  preposition  to  is  a 
separate  word  with  an  independent  existence.  Smi^iim 
IS  the  radical  syllable  smi^  -f  the  subordinate  inflectional 
syllable  -urn,  the  sign  of  the  dative  case.  The  combina- 
tion to  smiths  is  the  substantive  smiths  -\-  the  preposition 
to,  equivalent  in  power  to  the  sign  of  a  dative  case,  but 
different  from  it  in  form.  As  far,  then,  as  the  words  just 
quoted  is  concerned,  the  Anglo-Saxon  differs  from  the 
English  by  expressing  an  idea  by  a  certain  modijicuiion 
of  tJie  form  of  the  root,  whereas  the  modern  English  dc- 
uotes  the  same  idea  by  the  addition  of  a  preposition  ;  in 


TO    TnE    AXGLO-SAXOX.  65 

otlicr  ^yo^ds,  the  Saxon  inflection  is  superseded  by  a  co7n 
binaiion  of  "woi'ds. 

The  sentences  in  italics  are  mere  variations  of  the 
same  general  statement.  1.  The  earlier  the  stage  of  a 
given  language  the  greater  the  amount  of  its  inflection- 
al forms,  and  tJie  later  tlie  stage  of  a  given  language, 
the  S7naller  the  amount  of  them.  2.  As  languages  be- 
come modern  they  substitute  pi'cpositions  aJid  auxiliary 
verbs  for  cases  and  tenses.  3.  The  amount  of  inflection 
is  in  the  inverse  proportion  to  the  amount  of  prepositions 
and  auxiliary  verbs.  4.  In  the  course  of  time  languages 
drop  their  inflections,  and  substitute  in  its  stead  circum- 
locutions by  means  of  p>repositions,  ^'c.  The  reverse 
never  takes  place.  5.  Given  two  modes  of  e.rprcssio?i, 
the  one  inflectional  (smiSum),  the  other  circu7}ilocuiional* 
(to  smiths),  tve  can  state  that  the  first  belongs  to  an  early, 
the  second  to  a  late,  state  of  language. 

The  present  chapter,  then  showing  the  relation  of  the 
English  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  shows  something  more.  It 
exhibits  the  general  relation  of  a  modern  to  an  ancient 
language.  As  the  English  is  to  the  Anglo-Saxon,  so  are 
the  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Norwegian,  to  the  old  Norse ; 
and  so  are  the  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  Ro- 
niancse  and  AYallachian  to  the  Latin,  and  the  Romaic  to 
the  ancient  Greek. 

§  97.  Contrasted  with  the  English,  the  Ansrlo-Saxon 
has  (among  others)  the  following  differences. 

NOUNS. 

1.  Gender. — In  Anglo-Saxon  there  were  three  gen- 
ders, the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and  the  neuter.  With 
adjectives  each  gender  had  its  peculiar  declension.     "With 

*  Or  pcripfirantic. 


66  RELATION   OF  THE   ENGLISH. 

substantives   also   tLcrc   "vvcre   appropriate   terminations, 
tliougli  only  to  a  certain  degree. 

2.  The  definite  article  varied  ^ith  the  gender  of  its 
substantive ;  ^CBt  eage,  the  eye ;  se  steorra^  the  star  ;  sco 
tiinge^  the  tongue. 

3.  Number. — The  plural  form  in  -en  (as  in  oxc7i),  rare 
in  English,  was  common  in  Anglo-Saxon.  It  was  the 
regular  termination  of  a  whole  declension ;  e.  g.,  edgan, 
eyes ;  steorran,  stars ;  tungan,  tongues.  Besides  this, 
the  Anglo-Saxons  had  forms  in  -u  and  -a  as  riciL  kine:- 
doms ;  g^fa,  gifts.  The  termination  -s,  current  in  the 
present  English,  was  confined  to  a  single  gender  and  to  a 
single  declension,  as  efidas,  ends  ;  dagas,  days ;  smi^as, 
smiths. 

4.  Case. — Of  these  the  Saxons  had,  for  their  substan- 
tives, at  least  three  ;  viz.,  the  nominative,  dative,  genitive. 
With  the  pronouns  and  adjectives  there  was  a  true  accu- 
sative form ;  and  with  a  few  especial  words  an  ablative  or 
instrumental  one.  >S'mib,  a  smith ;  smi^e,  to  a  smith ; 
smiles,  of  a  smith.  Plural,  smitas,  smiths ;  smi't>iun^ 
to  smiths  ;  smr6a,  of  smiths  :  he,  he ;  June,  him ;  him,  to 
him ;  his,  his :  sc,  the ;  fa,  the  ;  ]>7/,  with  the ;  ]>am,  to 
the  ;  ycBs,  of  the. 

5.  Declension. — In  Anglo-Saxon  it  was  necessary  to 
determine  the  declension  of  a  substantive.  There  was 
the  Aveak,  or  simple  declension  for  words  ending  in  a  vowel 
(as,  eage,  steorra,  tunga),  and  the  strong  declension  for 
words  ending  in  a  consonant  [smt^,  sprcBc,  leaf).  The 
letters  i  and  u  were  dealt  with  as  semivowels,  somi-vovrels 
being  dealt  with  as  consonants ;  so  that  words  like  simu 
and  gifii  belonged  to  the  same  declension  as  smit>  and 
sproic. 

6.  Definite  and  indefinite  form  of  adjectives. — In 
Anglo-Saxon  each  adjective  had  two  forms,  one  definite 


TO    THE    ANGLO-SAXON.  37 

and  one  indcfiiiite.  There  is  nothing  of  this  kind  in 
English.  Wc  say  a  good  sword,  and  ilie  good  sword 
equally.  In  Anglo-Saxon,  however,  the  first  combina- 
tion would  be  se  gode  siveord,  the  second  ii7i  god  sweord, 
the  definite  form  being  distinguished  from  the  indefinite 
by  the  addition  of  a  voAvel. 

7.  Projiontis  personal. — The  Anglo  Saxon  language 
had  for  the  first  two  persons  a  dual  number ;  inflected  as 
follows : 

1st  Person.  2nd  Person. 

JS'oin.  Wit  Wc  two  Nom.  Git  Ye  (wo. 

Ace.    line  l/s  (wo  Ace.    Ince  Yoic  (wo 

Gen.    Uucer  0/us  (wo  Gen.    Incer  Of  you  (wo. 

Besides  this,  the  demonstrative,  possessive,  and  relative 
pronouns,  as  well  as  the  numerals  tioa  and  '\^rco,  had  a 
fuller  declension  than  they  have  at  present. 

VERBS. 

8.  Mood. — The  subjunctive  mood  that  in  the  present 
English  (with  one  exception*)  differs  from  the  indicative 
only  in  the  third  person  singular,  was  in  Anglo-Saxon 
considerably  different  from  the  indicative. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Pres.  Sinrj.  1.     Lufige.  Plur.  1.  ^ 

2.  Lufast  2.  >  LufiaS. 

3.  LufaS  3.  ) 

Suhjanctive  Mood. 
Pres.  Sinff.  1.  ^  Plur.  1.  ^ 

2.  >  Lufige  2.  >  LufioQ. 

3.  S  3.  S 


*  ITiat  of  the  verb  substantive,  if  I  were,  subjuuctivc,  aa  opposed  to 
/  was,  indicative. 


68  RELATION   OP  THE   ENGLISH 

The  Saxon  infinitive  ended  in  -a7i  {lufian),  and  besides 
this  there  "was  a  so-called  gcrundial  form,  to  hifigenne. 

Besides  these  there  were  considerable  differences  in 
respect  to  particular  words ;  but  of  these  no  notice  is 
taken ;  the  object  being  to  indicate  the  differences  between 
the  ancient  and  inodcrn  stages  of  a  language  in  respect  to 
grammatical  structure. 

9.  To  bring  about  these  changes  a  certain  amount  of 
time  is,  of  course,  necessary ;  a  condition  which  suggests 
the  difficult  question  as  to  the  rate  at  which  languages 
change.  This  is  different  for  different  languages  ;  but  as 
the  investigation  belongs  to  general  philology  rather  than 
to  the  particular  history  of  the  English  language,  it  finds 
no  place  here. 

§  98.  The  extent,  however,  to  which  external  causes 
may  accelerate  or  retard  philological  changes,  is  not  foreign 
to  our  subject ;  the  influence  of  the  Norman  Conquest, 
upon  the  previous  Anglo-Saxon  foundation,  being  a  prob- 
lem of  some  difficulty. 

At  the  first  glance  it  seems  to  have  been  considerable, 
especially  in  the  way  of  simplifying  the  grammar.  Yet 
the  accuracy  of  this  view  is  by  no  means  unequivocal. 
The  reasons  against  it  are  as  follows : 

a.  In  Friesland  no  such  conquest  took  place.  Yet  the 
modern  Frisian,  as  compared  with  the  ancient,  is  nearly 
as  simple  in  its  grammatical  structure,  as  the  English  is 
when  compared  with  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

h.  In  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  no  such  con- 
quest took  place.  Yet  the  modern  Danish  and  Swedish, 
as  compared  with  the  Old  Norse,  are  nearly  as  simple  in 
their  grammatical  structure,  as  the  English  is,  when  com- 
pared with  the  Anglo-Saxon. 

The  question  requires  more  investigation  than  it  haa 
met  with. 


TO  THE  ANGLO-SAXOX.  69 

An  extract  from  Mr.  Ilallam's  "  History  of  Literature" 
closes  the  present  section,  and  introduces  the  next. 

"Nothing  can  be  more  difficult,  except  by  an  arbitrary  line,  than 
to  determine  the  commencement  of  the  English  language;  not  sn 
much,  as  in  those  on  the  Continent,  because  we  are  in  want  of  ma- 
terials, but  rather  from  an  opposite  reason,  Ihe  possibihty  of  showing 
a  very  gradual  succession  of  verbal  changes  that  ended  in  a  change 
of  denomination.  We  should  probably  experience  a  similar  difficulty, 
if  we  knew  equally  well  the  current  idiom  of  France  or  Italy  in  the 
seventh  and  eighth  centuries.  For  when  we  compare  the  earliest 
English  of  the  thirteenth  century  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  twelfth, 
it  seems  hard  to  pronounce  why  it  should  pass  for  a  separate  language, 
ratlier  than  a  modification  or  simplification  of  the  former.  "We  must 
conform,  however,  to  usage,  and  say  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  was  con- 
verted iato  English: — 1.  By  contracting  and  otherwise  modifying 
the  pronunciation  and  orthography  of  words.  2.  By  omitting  many 
mflections,  especially  of  the  noun,  and  consequently  making  more  use 
of  articles  and  auxiliaries.  3.  By  the  introduction  of  Frencli  deriva- 
tives. 4.  By  using  less  inversion  and  ellipsis,  especially  in  poetry. 
Of  these,  the  second  alone,  I  think,  can  be  considered  as  sufiicient  to 
describe  a  new  form  of  language;  and  this  was  brought  about  so 
rradually,  that  we  are  not  reheved  from  much  of  our  difficulty,  as  to 
whether  some  compositions  shall  pass  for  the  latest  offspring  of  the 
mother,  or  the  earlier  fruits  of  the  daughter's  fertility.  It  is  a  proof 
of  this  difficulty  that  the  best  masters  of  our  ancient  language  have  lately 
introduced  tJie  word  Semi-Saxon,  which  is  to  cover  everj'thing  from  a.  d. 
1150  to  A.  p.  1250."— Chapter  I  47. 


§  99.  This  shows  that  by  the  middle  of  the  12th  cen- 
tury, the  Anglo-Saxon  of  the  standard  Anglo-Saxon  au- 
thors, had  undergone  such  a  change  as  to  induce  the 
scholars  of  the  present  age  to  denominate  it,  not  Saxon, 
but  <S'e7m-Saxon.  It  had  ceased  to  be  genuine  Saxon,  but 
had  not  yet  become  English. 

Some,  amongst  others,  of  the  earlier  changes  of  the 
standard  Anglo-Saxon  are, 

1.  The  substitution  of   an  for  -«.■?,  in  the  plural  of 


70... ..'-■'■■■■         RELATION   OF  THE  ENGLISH 

substantives,  tnunucan  for  munucas  {monies) ;  and,  con- 
versely, the  substitution  of  -s  for  -7i,  as  steorres  for 
steorran  {stars). 

2.  The  ejection  or  shortening  of  final  vowels,  ]>cBt 
ylc  for  \cct  ylce  ;  sone  for  sunu  ;  name  for  nama  ;  dages 
for  dagas.     . 

3.  The  substitution  of  -n  for  -7n  in  the  dative  case, 
hwUnn  for  Jiwilum. 

4.  The  ejection  of  the  -n  of  the  infinitive  mood,  cumme 
for  cuman  {to  come),  nemne  for  nem^nen  {to  naine). 

5.  The  ejection  of  -en  in  the  participle  passive,  I-hote 
for  gehalen  {called,  hight). 

6.  The  gerundial  termination  -enne,  superseded  by  the 
infinitive  termination  -en  ;  as  to  liifian  for  to  lufienne,  or 
lufigenne. 

7.  The  substitution  of  -en  for  -d^  in  the  persons  plu- 
ral of  verbs  ;  hi  depot  {they  call)  for  hi  chjpia^,  &c. 

The  preponderance  (not  the  occasional  occurrence)  of 
forms  like  those  above  constitute  SetniSaxon  in  contra- 
distinction to  standard  Saxon,  classical  Saxon,  or  Anglo- 
Saxon  proper. 

§  100.  Old  English  stage. — Further  changes  convert 
Semi-Saxon  into  Old  English.  Some,  amongst  others,  arc 
the  following : — 

1.  The  ejection  of  the  dative  plural  termination  -nm, 
and  the  substitution  of  the  preposition  to  and  the  plural 
sign  -s  ;  as  to  smiths  for  smi^iim.  Of  the  dative  sing- 
gular  the  -e  is  retained  {ende,  worde)  ;  but  it  is  by  no 
means  certain  that,  although  recognized  in  writing,  it  was 
equally  recognized  in  pronunciation  also. 

2.  The  ejection  of  -es  in  the  genitive  singular  whenever 
the  preposition  of  came  before  it ;  Godes  love  { God's 
love),  but  the  love  of  God,  and  not  the  love  of  Godes. 

3.  The  syllable  -es  as  a  sign  of  the  genitive  case  ex- 


TO  THE  ANGLO  SAXON. 

tended  to  all  genders  and  to  all  declensions  ;  heart's  for 
heortan  ;  swi's  for  siitniwi. 

4.  The  same  in  respect  to  tlie  plural  number  ;  stores 
for  steorran  ;  sons  for  snna. 

5.  The  ejection  of  -?ia  in  the  genitive  plural ;  as  of 
tiinges  for  tungcna. 

6.  The  use  of  the  word  the,  as  an  article,  instead  of 
se,  6cc. 

The  prepondermice  of  the  forms  above  (and  not  their 
mere  occasional  occurrence)  constitutes  Old  English  in 
contradistinction  to  Semi-Saxon. 

§  101.  In  the  Old  English  the  following  forms  pre- 
dominate. 

1.  A  fuller  inflection  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun, 
or  definite  article  ;  \an^  ]>cnne,  ^fcrc,  ]>a/?i ; — in  contra- 
distinction to  the  Middle  English. 

2.  The  presence  of  the  dative  singular  in  -e  ;  aide, 
smifhe. 

3.  The  existence  of  a  genitive  plural  in  -r  or  -ra ; 
heora,  theirs  ;  aller,  of  all.  This,  with  substantives  and 
adjectives,  is  less  common. 

4.  The  substitution  of  heo  for  they,  of  hcora  for  their, 
of  hem  for  the?n. 

5.  A  more  frequent  use  of  7nin  and  thin,  for  ?7i?/  and 
thy  : — in  contradistinction  to  both  Middle  and  ISIodern 
English. 

6.  The  use  of  heo  for  she  ; — in  contradistinction  to 
Middle  and  Modern  English  and  Old  Lowland  Scotch. 

T.  The  use  of  broader  vowels ;  as  in  iclepwd  or  icle- 
pod  (for  iclepcd  or  yclept)  :  geongost,  youngest ;  ascode, 
asked ;  eldore,  elder. 

8.  The  use  of  the  strong  preterits  (.s'ee  the  chapter  on 
the  tenses  of  verbs),  where  in  the  present  English  the 
weak  form  is  found — 2ce.T,  wop,  dalf,  for  icaxed,  wept, 
delved. 


72  DELATION   OF  THE   EXGLISn 

9.  The  omission  not  only  of  the  gcrundial  termina- 
tion -ennc,  hut  also  of  the  infinitive  sign  -en  after  to  ;  to 
hontc,  to  spcke  ; — in  contradistinction  to  Semi-Saxon. 

10.  The  substitution  of  -en  for  -c]>  or  -e^,  in  the  first 
and  second  persons  plural  of  verbs  ;  7ve  wollen,  we  Avill : 
heo  schiiUen^  they  should. 

11.  The  comparative  absence  of  the  articles  se  and  sco. 

12.  The  substitution  of  hen  and  heeth^  for  synd  and 
sT/ndon  =  we,  ye,  they  are. 

§  102.  Concerning  the  extent  to  which  the  Anglo- 
Norman  was  used,  I  retail  the  following  statements  and 
quotations. 

1.  "  Letters  even  of  a  private  nature  w^ere  wi-itten  in  Latin  till  the 
beginning  of  the  reign  of  Edward  L,  soon  after  1270,  -when  a  sudden 
change  brought  in  the  use  of  French." — Mr.  Hallam,  communicated  by  Mr. 
Stevenson  {Literature  of  Europe,  i.  52,  and  note). 

2.  Conversation  between  the  members  of  the  Universities  was  ordered 
to  be  carried  on  either  in  Latin  or  French: — '^  Si  q^ia  inter  se jnoferant, 
toUoquio  Latino  vel  saltern  Gallico  perfruaiitur" — Statutes  of  Oriel 
College,  Oxford. — Ilallam,  ibid,  from  "Warton. 

3.  "  The  Minutes  of  the  Corporation  of  London,  recorded  in  the  Town 
Clerk's  Office,  were  in  French,  as  woU  as  the  Proceedings  in  Parliament, 
and  in  the  Courts  of  Justice." — Ibid. 

A.  "  In  Grammar  Schools,  boys  were  made  to  construe  their  Latin  into 
French  " — Ibid.  "  Piieri  in  scholis,  contra  morem  cateraritm  nationum,  et 
Normannorum  advcntu,  derclicto  proprio  vulgari,  construcre  Gallice  com- 
ficlluntur.  Item  quod  filii  nobiliuni  ab  ipsis  cunabulorum  crepundlis  ad 
Gallicum  idioma  informantur.  Qiiibns  profecto  rurales  homines  assi- 
midari  volentes,  lit  per  Jioc  spcctaliliores  videa7itur,  Francigenari  satagunt 
omni  7iisu." — Higden  {Ed.  Gale,  p.  210). 

§  103.  The  reigns  of  Edward  III.,  and  Richard  II., 
may  be  said  to  form  a  transition  from  the  Old  to  the 
Middle  ;  those  of  Mary  and  Elizabeth  from  the  Middle  to 
the  Ne7v,  Recent  or  Modem  English.  No  very  definite 
line  of  demarcation,  however  can  be  drawn. 


TO  TUE  ANGLO-SAXON.  73 

§  10-1.  The  present  tendencies  of  the  English  may  be 
determined  by  observation :  and  as  most  of  them  will  be 
noticed  in  the  etymological  part  of  this  volume,  the  few 
here  indicated  must  be  looked  upon  as  illustrations  only. 

1.  The  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  indi- 
cative mood  is  likely  to  pass  away.  We  verify  this  by  the 
very  general  tendency  to  say  if  it  is,  and  if  he  speaks, 
rather  than  if  it  he,  and  if  he  speak. 

2.  The  distinction  between  the  participle  passive  and 
the  past  tense  is  likely  to  pass  away.  We  verify  this  by 
the  tendency  to  say  it  is  broke,  and  Ice  is  smote,  for  it  is 
broken  and  he  is  smitten. 

3.  Of  the  double  forms,  sung  and  sang,  drank  and 
drunk,  &c.,  one  only  will  be  the  permanent. 

As  stated  above,  these  tendencies  are  but  a  few  out  of 
many,  and  have  been  adduced  in  order  to  indicate  the 
Bubject  rather  than  to  exhaust  it. 


7i  QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIOIS'S. 

1.  Classify  the  Celtic  elcmeut.s  of  the  English  language. 

2.  Enumerate  the  chief  periods  during  •which  "words  from  the  Latm 
were  introduced  into  English,  and  classify  the  Latin  elements  ac 
cordingly. 

S.  "What  words  were  introduced  dirccthj  by  the  Danes,  Scandinar 
vians,  or  Norsemen?  What  indirccthj?  Through  what  language  did 
these  latter  come  ? 

4.  Give  the  dates  of  the  Battle  of  Hastings,  and  of  the  reigns  of 
Louis  Outremcr,  Ethelred  II.,  and  Edward  the  Confessor.  What  was 
the  amount  of  Norman-French  elements  in  England  anterior  to  the  Con- 
quest ? 

5.  Give  the  languages  from  whence  the  following  words  were  intio- 
duced  into  the  English— ^anneZ  jerked  (as  to  hecf),  hammock,  apparatus, 
waltz,  Seraph,  plaid,  street,  mxislin. 

6.  Distinguish  between  the  direct,  indirect,  and  ultimate  origin  of 
introduced  words.  What  words  have  we  in  English  which  ai-e  supposed 
to  have  originated  in  the  Ancient  .Egyptian,  the  Syrian,  and  the  languages 
of  Asia  Minor  ? 

7.  Under  what  ditTerent  forms  do  tlie  folloM'ing  words  appear  in 
English — monastcrium,  irpea-fivrepos,  imffKOTTos.  Account  for  these  differ- 
ences. Syrup,  shrub,  and  sho-bct,  all  originate  from  the  same  word. 
Explain  the  present  difference. 

8.  Give  the  direct  origin  {i.e.,  the  languages  from  which  they  were 
immediately  introduced)  of — Druid,  epistle,  chivalry,  cyder,  mwander, 
fiive  tlie  indirect  origin  of  the  same. 

9.  Investigate  the  process  by  which  a  word  like  sparroio-grass,  ap 
paicntly  of  English  origin,  is,  in  reality,  derived  from  the  Latin  word 
a:<paragus.  Point  out  the  incorrectness  in  the  words  frontispiece,  coh 
Itiiguc,  and  lantho-rn. 


QUESTIONS.  75 

10.  To  ■wliat  extent  may  Xorsc,  and  to  -what  extent  may  Celtic  words, 
not  found  in  tlie  current  language  of  English,  be  found  in  the  provincial 
dialects  ? 

11.  "What  were  the  original  names  of  the  towns  Whitby  and  Derby? 
From  what  language  are  the  present  names  derived  ?  Give  the  reason  fur 
your  answer. 

12.  Show  the  extent  to  which  the  logical  and  historical  analyses 
coincide  in  respect  to  the  words  introduced  from  the  Roman  of  the  second 
period,  the  Arabic,  the  Anglo-Xorman,  and  the  Celtic  of  the  current 
English. 

13.  What  are  the  plui'al  forms  oi criterion,  axis,  genius,  index,  dogma? 
"When  is  a  word  introduced  from  a  foreign  language  perfectly,  when 
imperfectly  incorporated  with  the  language  into  which  it  is  imported  ?  la 
the  following  expression  correct — the  cherubim  that  singeth  aloft  ?  If  not, 
why? 

1-4.  What  is  there  exceptionable  in  the  words  semaphore  (meaning 
a  sort  of  telegi-aph),  and  witticism.  Give  the  etymologies  of  the  words 
icicle,  radicle,  and  radical. 

15.  "V\Tiat  are  the  singular  forms  of  cantharides,  phcenomena,  and 
data? 

16.  What  are  the  stages  of  the  English  language?  How  does  the 
present  differ  from  the  older  ones  ? 

IT.  Exhibit  in  detail  the  inflections  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  a)  noun, 
and  b)  verb,  which  are  not  foimd  in  the  present  English.  What  is 
the  import  of  the  loss  of  inflections,  and  their  replacement  by  sepa- 
rate words?  What  is  the  nature  of  such  words  in  nouns?  What  in 
verbs  ? 

18.  Contrast  the  syntax  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  with  the  Modern 
English  adjective.  What  is  the  English  for  the  Anglo-Saxon  words  wit, 
unc,  incer  ? 

19.  Express,  in  general  terms,  the  chief  points  wherein  a  modem 
language  differs  from  an  ancient  one :  or,  rather,  the  points  wherein  the 
different  stages  of  the  same  language  differ. 

20.  Investigate  the  influence  of  the  Norman  Conquest  on  the 
English.  Explain  the  terms  Semi-Saxon,  Old  English,  and  Middle 
English.  Compare  the  stages  of  the  English  with  those  of  the  other 
C!  othic  tongues. 

21.  Give  the  Modern  English  for  the  following  forms  and  ex- 
pressions— munucas,  steorran,  to  lufienne.  Wliat  are  the  Anglo-Saxon 
forms  of  munucan,  steorres,  i-hotte,  clepen?  Translate  the  Latin  word 
omnium    (genitive    plural    of    omnis)    into     Old    English.       Translate 


76  QUESTIONS. 

the    Greek    6,    ij     t2»    into    Anglo-Saxon,    Old    Etigluh,    jxnJ    Modeni 
Englislt 

22.  Investigate  the  extent  to  which  the  Anglo-Norman  superseded 
the  Anglo-Saxon  subsequent  to  the  Conquest.  Is  any  furtJicr  change  in 
the  grammatical  structure  of  our  language  probable  ?  If  so,  what  do  you 
conaidcr  will  be  the  natuie  of  it ' 


PART  IIL 

SOUNDS,    LETTERS,    PIIOXUNCIATIOI^.    SPELLING. 


CIIArTER   I. 

GENERAL     NATURE     AND     CERTAIN     TROPERTIES    OF    ARTICULATE 
SOUNDS. 

§  105.  To  two  points  connected  -with  the  subject 
of  the  following  chapter,  the  attention  of  the  reader  is 
requested. 

a.  In  the  comparison  of  sounds  tlic  ear  is  liable  to  be 
misled  by  the  eye.     Thus — 

The  syllables  ha  and  ga  are  similar  syllables.  The 
vowel  is  in  each  the  same,  and  the  consonant  is  but 
slightly  different.  Hence  the  words  ka  and  ga  are  more 
allied  to  each  other  than  the  words  ka  and  icr,  ka  and 
ta^  &c.,  because  the  consonantal  sounds  of  k  and  g  are 
more  allied  than  the  consonantal  sounds  of  /;  and  &,  k 
and  t. 

Comparing  the  syllables  ga  and  ka^  we  sec  the 
aflSnity  between  the  sounds,  and  we  sec  it  at  the  first 
glance.  It  lies  on  the  surface,  and  strikes  the  ear  at 
once. 

It  is,  however,  very  evident  that  ways  might  bo 
devised,  or  might  arise  from  accident,  of  concealing  the 


78  NATURE  AND   PROPERTIES 

likeness  between  the  two  sounds,  or,  at  any  rate,  of 
nuiking  it  less  palpable.  One  of  such  ways  would  be 
;i  faulty  mode  of  spelling.  If  instead  of  ga  we  Avrotc 
gha  the  following  would  be  the  effect :  the  syllable  would 
appear  less  simple  than  it  really  was ;  it  would  look  as 
if  it  consisted  of  three  parts  instead  of  two,  and  con- 
sequently its  aflinity  to  ha  Avould  seem  less  than  it  really 
Avas.  It  is  perfectly  true  that  a  little  consideration  would 
tell  us  that,  as  long  as  the  sound  remained  the  same, 
the  relation  of  the  two  syllables  remained  the  same  also  ; 
and  that,  if  the  contrary  appeared  to  be  the  case,  the 
ear  was  misled  by  the  eye.  Still  a  little  consideration 
would  be  required.  Now  in  the  English  language  Ave 
have  (amongst  others)  the  following  modes  of  spelling 
that  have  a  tendency  to  mislead ; — 

The  sounds  of  p/i  and  of/,  in  Philip  ami  fillip,  differ 
to  the  eye,  but  to  the  ear  arc  identical.  Here  a  differ- 
ence is  simulated. 

The  sounds  of  th  in  thbi,  and  of  th  in  thine,  differ  to 
the  ear  but  to  the  eye  seem  the  same.  Here  a  difference 
is  concealed. 

Fui'thermore.  These  last  sounds  appear  to  the  eye  to 
be  double  or  compound.  This  is  not  the  case ;  they  are 
simple  single  sounds,  and  not  the  sounds  of  t  folloAved  by 
h,  as  the  spelling  leads  us  to  imagine. 

b.  Besides  improper  modes  of  spelling,  there  is  another 
Avay  of  concealing  the  true  nature  of  sounds.  If  I  say 
that  ha  and  ga  are  allied,  the  alliance  is  manifest ;  since 
I  compare  the  actual  sounds.  If  I  say  ha  and  gee  arc 
allied,  the  alliance  is  concealed;  since  I  compare,  not 
the  actual  sounds,  but  only  the  names  of  the  letters  that 
express  those  sounds.  Now  in  the  English  language  Ave 
have  (amongst  others)  the  following  names  of  letters  that 
have  a  tendency  to  mislead : — 


OF  ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  79 

The  sounds  fa  and  va  arc  allied.  The  names  off  and 
vee  conceal  this  alliance. 

The  sounds  sa  and  za  arc  allied.  The  names  ess  and 
zed  conceal  the  alliance. 

In  comparing  sounds  it  is  advisable  to  have  nothing  to 
do  either  with  letters  or  names  of  letters.  Compare  the 
sounds  themselves. 

§  lOG.  In  many  cases  it  is  sufficient,  in  comparing  con- 
.  sonants,  to  compare  syllables  that  contain  those  conso- 
nants ;  e.  g.j  in  order  to  determine  the  relations  of  /;.  b.  /, 
V,  we  say  pa,  ha,  fa,  va  ;  or  for  those  of  5  and  z,  we  say 
sa,  za.  Here  we  compare  syllables,  each  consonant  being 
followed  by  a  vowel.  At  times  this  is  insufficient.  We 
are  often  obliged  to  isolate  the  consonant  from  its  vowel, 
and  bring  our  organs  to  utter  (or  half  utter)  the  imperfect 
sounds  of  j)\  b\  f,  d\ 

§  107.  Let  any  of  the  vowels  (for  instance,  the  a  in 
father)  be  sounded.  The  lips,  the  tongue,  and  the  parts 
Avithin  the  throat  remain  in  the  same  position ;  and  as 
long  as  these  remain  in  the  same  position  the  sound  is  that 
of  the  vowel  under  consideration.  Let,  however,  a  change 
take  place  in  the  position  of  the  organs  of  sound ;  let,  for 
instance,  the  lips  be  closed,  or  the  tongue  be  applied  to 
the  front  part  of  the  mouth :  in  that  case  the  vowel 
sound  is  cut  short.  It  undergoes  a  change.  It  terminates 
in  a  sound  that  is  different,  according  to  the  state  of  those 
organs  whereof  the  position  has  been  changed.  If,  on 
the  vowel  in  question,  the  lips  be  closed,  there  then  arises 
an  imperfect  sound  of  b  or  p.  If  on  the  other  hand,  the 
tongue  be  applied  to  the  front  teeth,  or  to  the  fore- 
part of  the  palate,  the  sound  is  one  (more  or  less  imper- 
fect) of  t  or  d.  This  fact  illustrates  the  difference  be- 
tween the  vowels  and  the  consonants.     It  may  be  verified 


80  NATURE  AND   PKOrERTIES. 

by  pronouncing  the  a  in  falc^  ce  in  fed,  oo  m  book,  o  in 
note,  &.C. 

It  is  a  furtlicr  condition  in  the  formation  of  a  vouel 
sound,  that  the  passage  of  the  breath  be  uninterrupted. 
In  the  sound  of  tlie  Z'  in  la  (isolated  from  its  vowel)  the 
sound  is  as  continuous  as  it  is  Avith  the  a  in  fate.  Be- 
tween, however,  the  consonant  I  and  the  vowel  a  there  is 
this  difference :  with  a,  the  passage  of  the  breath  is  unin- 
terrupted ;  with  I,  the  tongue  is  applied  to  the  palate,- 
breaking  or  arresting  the  passage  of  the  breath. 

§  108.  The  primary  division  of  our  articulate  sounds 
is  into  vowels  and  consonants.  The  latter  are  again  di- 
vided into  liquids  (/.  m,  n,  r)  and  mutes  (p.  b.  f  v,  t,  d,  k, 
ff,  s,  z,  &c.). 

§  109.  iSharp  and  flat. — Take  the  sounds  of  p,  f  t, 
k,  s.  Isolate  them  from  their  vowels,  and  pronounce  them. 
The  sound  is  the  sound  of  a  whisper. 

Let  b,  V,  d,  g,  z,  be  similarly  treated.  The  sound 
is  no  whisper,  but  one  at  the  natural  tone  of  our  voice. 

Now  2^,f  t,  k,  s  (with  some  others  that  will  be  brought 
forward  anon)  are  sharp,  whilst  b,  v,  &c.,  are  flat.  Instead 
0^  sharp,  some  say  hard,  and  instead  of  flat,  some  saj  soft. 
The  terms  sonant  and  surd  are,  in  a  scientific  point  of 
view,  the  least  exceptionable.  They  have,  however,  the 
disadvantage  of  being  pedantic.  The  iemies  of  the  clas- 
sics (as  far  as  they  go)  are  sharp,  the  medioi  flat. 

§  110.  Contimious  and  explosive. — Isolate  the  sounds 
of  b,  p,  t,  d,  k,  g.  Pronounce  them.  You  have  no  power 
of  prolonging  the  sounds,  or  of  resting  upon  them.  They 
escape  with  the  breath,  and  they  escape  at  once. 

It  is  not  so  with  f,  v,  sh,  zh.  Here  the  breath  is  trans- 
mitted by  degrees,  and  the  sound  can  be  drawn  out  and 
prolonged  for  an  indefinite  space  of  time.  Now  b,  p,  t, 
&c.,  are  explosive,  /,  v,  &c.,  continuous. 


OF  ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  81 

§  111.  Concerning  the  vo^vels,  v>c  may  [a-cdicatc  a) 
that  they  are  all  continuous,  b)  that  they  are  all  flat. 

Concerning  the  liquids,  we  may  predicate  a)  that  they 
are  all  continuous,  b)  that  they  are  all  flat. 

Concerning  the  mutes,  we  may  predicate  a)  tliat  one 
half  of  them  is  flat,  and  the  other  half  sharp,  and  b)  that 
some  are  continuous,  and  that  others  arc  explosive. 

112. — The  letter  h  is  no  articulate  sound,  but  only  a 
breathinsr 


82  SYSTEM  OF 


CIIAPTER  11. 

SYSTEM    OF    ARTICULATi;    SOUNDS. 

§  113. — The  attention  of  the  reader  is  now  directed  tu 
tlic  following  foreign  vowel  sounds. 

1.  The  e  ferine^  of  the  French. — This  is  a  sound  alUed 
to,  but  different  from,  the  a  in  fate,  and  the  ee  in  feet. 
It  is  intermediate  to  the  two. 

2.  The  u  of  the  French,  u  of  the  Germans,  y  of  the 
Danes. — This  sound  is  intermediate  to  the  ee  in  feet,  and 
the  00  in  hook. 

3.  The  o  chiuso,  of  the  Italians. — Intermediate  to  the 
0  in  note,  and  the  oo  in  book. 

For  these  sounds  we  have  the  following  sequences :  a 
in  fate,  cfermc,  ee  in  feet,  it  in  iibel  (German),  oo  in  book, 
0  chiuso,  0  in  note.  And  this  is  the  true  order  of  alli- 
ance among  the  vowels ;  a  in  fate,  and  o  in  note,  being 
the  extremes ;  the  other  sounds  being  transitional  or 
intermediate.  As  the  English  orthography  is  at  once 
singular  and  faulty,  it  exhibits  the  relationship  but  im- 
perfectly. 

§  114,  The  sijstcm  of  the  mutes. — Preliminary  to  the 
consideration  of  the  system  of  the  mutes,  let  it  be  ob- 
served : — 

1.  that  the  tJi  in  thin  is   a  simple  single  sound,  different 

from  the  ih  in  iJdne,  and  that  it  may  be  expressed  by 
the  sign  y. 

2.  That  the  th  in  thine  is  a  simple  single  sound,  different 


ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  '  83 

from  tlie  th  in  thin,  and  that  it  may  be  cxpresscil  by 
the  sign  ^. 

3.  That  the  sh  in  sfiine  is  a   simple    single  sound,  and 

that  it  may  be   expressed  by  the   sign   a*  (Greek 
criy/xa). 

4.  That  the  z  in  azwc,  glazier  (French  j)  is  a  simple 

single  sound,  and  that  it  may  be  expressed  by  the 
sign  ^  (Greek  ^ijto). 

5.  That  in  the  Laplandic,  and  possibly  in  many  other  lan- 

guages, there  are  two  peculiar  sounds,  diflfcrcnt  from 
any  in  English,  German,  and  French,  &c.,  and  that 
they  may  respectively  be  expressed  by  the  sign  k  and 
the  sign  y*  (Greek  KdirTra  and  ydinia). 
§  115.  With  these  preliminary  notices  wc  may  exhibit 
the  system  of  the  sixteen  mutes  ;  having  previously  deter- 
mined the  meaning  of  tvro  fresh  terms,  and  bearing  in  mind 
Avhat  "was  said  concerning  the  words  sharp  and  Jlat,  con- 
iinuous  and  explosive. 

Lene  and  aspirate. — From  the  sound  of  p  in  j)at.  the 
sound  of  /  in  fat  differs  in  a  certain  degree.  This  differ- 
ence is  not  owing  to  a  difference  in  their  sharpness  or  flat- 
ness. Each  is  sharp.  Neither  is  it  owing  to  a  difference 
in  their  continuity  or  explosiveness  ;  although  /  is  contin- 
uous, whilst  p  is  explosive.  This  we  may  ascertain  by  con-, 
sidcring  the  position  of  5.  The  soimd  of  5  is  continnons  ; 
yet  s,  m  respect  to  the  difference  under  consideration,  is 
classed  not  "with  /  the  continuous  sound  but  with  ^;  the 
explosive  one.  This  difference,  which  has  yet  to  be  pro- 
perly elucidated,  is  expressed  by  a  particular  term ;  and 
p  is  called  lejie,  f  is  called  aspirate. 

As  /is  to  7?  so  is  v  to  b. 
As  t?  is  to  6  so  is  ]>  to  t. 

*  This  by  no  means  implies  that  such  was  the  power  of  <r,  (,  y,  k,  iu 
Greek.    They  are  merely  convenient  symbols. 


84 


SYSTEM  OF 


As  y  is  to  t  SO  is  b  to  d. 
As  b  is  to  d  so  is  K  to  k. 
As  /c  is  to  k  so  is  7  to  ^'•. 
As  7  is  to  ^  so  is  (T  to  5. 
As  a  is  to  ."?  so  is  ^  to  ^r. 

Ilcncc  2^)  ^}  i)  <i^  f^'j  S'i  ^)  ^5  ^^'^  ^^^^^ }  /)  ^)  I'j  ^'  '^'  7! 
cr,  ^,  arc  aspirate.  Also  7?,  /,  t,  J*,  A",  at,  5,  a-^  arc  sharj), 
Avliilst  6,  V,  d,  ^,  ^'•j  7,  z,  ^.  are  ^a^ ;  so  that  there  is  a 
(loiiLlc  scries  of  rckitiunship  capable  of  being  expressed 
as  follows : — 


Lou 

Aspirate. 

Sharp. 

Flat. 

Sharp.       Flat 

P 

b 

f 

t 

d 

>             S 

k 

U 

ic              y 

s 

z 

C 

S/uirp.  Fiat. 

Laic.    Aspirate.  Ltne.    Aspirate, 
p              f  b  V 

i!  >  J  5 

/.•  K  g  y 

s  a  z  C 


All  the  so-called  aspirates  are  continuous ;  and,  with 
the  exception  of  s  and  z,  all  the  Icnes  arc  explosive. 

§  IIG.  I  believe  that  in  the  fact  of  each  mute  appear- 
ing in  a  four-fold  form  (/.  e.,  sharp,  or  flat,  Icne,  or  aspirate), 
lies  the  essential  character  of  the  mutes  as  opposed  to  the 
liquids, 

§  117.  Y  and  w. — These  sounds,  respectively  iuter- 
inediatc  to  7  and  i  (the  ee  in  feet\  and  to  v  and  u  {00  in 
book).)  form  a  transition  from  the  vowels  to  the  conso- 
nants. 

§  118.  The  French  word  roi^  and  the  English  Avords 
oily  house,  arc  specimens  of  a  fresh  class  of  articulations; 
viz.,  of  compound  voivel  sounds  or  diphthongs.  The 
diphthong  oi  is  the  vowel  0  -\-  the  sewuvowcl  y.  The 
diphthongal  sound  in  roi  is  the  vowel  0  +  the  semivowel 
't'.  In  rot  the  semivowel  element  precedes,  in  oil  it 
follows. 


ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  80 

§  119.  The  words  quoted  indicate  the  nature  of  the 
diphthongal  system. 

1.  Diphthongs  with  the  semivowel  u\  a)  jn'ccedlng;  as 
in  the  French  word  I'oi,  h)  following,  as  in  the  English 
word  new. 

2.  Diphthongs  with  the  semivowel  y,  a)  ])reccding;  as 
is  common  in  the  languages  of  the  Lithuanic  and  Slavonic 
stocks,  h)  following,  as  in  the  word  oil. 

3.  Triphthongs  Avith  a  semivowel  both  pi'cccding  and 
foiloiving. 

The  diphthongs  in  English  are  four  ;  oio  as  in  hoiiso, 
cw  as  in  next),  oi  as  in  oil,  i  as  in  bite,  fight. 

§  120.  Chest,  jest. — Here  we  have  compound  con 
sonantal  sounds.  The  cli  in  chest  =  t -\- sh  ;  the  j  in 
jest  =  d-{-  zh.  I  believe  that  in  these  combinations  one 
or  both  the  elements,  viz.,  t  and  sh,  d  and  zh,  are  modified  ; 
but  I  am  unable  to  state  the  exact  nature  of  this  modifica- 
tion. 

§  121.  Ng. — The  sound  of  the  ng  in  sing,  king, 
throng,  when  at  the  end  of  a  word,  or  of  singer,  ringing, 
&c.,  in  the  middle  of  a  word,  is  not  the  natural  sound  of 
the  combination  n  and  ^<^,  each  letter  retaining  its  natu- 
ral i)ower  and  sound ;  but  a  simple  single  sound,  for 
which  the  coml)ination  ng  is  a  conventional  mode  of  ex- 
pression. 

§  122.  Compared  with  a  in  fate,  and  the  o  in  note,  a 
in  father,  and  the  aw  in  baicl,  are  broad ;  the  vowels  of 
note  and  fate  being  slender. 

§  123.  In  fat,  the  vowel  is,  according  to  common 
])arlance,  short ;  in  fate,  it  is  long.  Here  we  have  the 
introduction  of  two  fresh  terms.  For  the  words  long 
and  short,  I  substitute  independent  and  dependent.  If 
from  the  word  fate  I  separate  the  final  consonantal 
sound,  the  syllaulc  fa  rcmaiurf.     In  this   syllable  the  a 


86 


SrSTEM  OF 


has  precisely  tlic  sound  tliat  it  had  before.  It  remains 
unaltered.  The  removal  of  the  consonant  has  in  no- 
Arise  modified  its  sound  or  power.  It  is  not  so,  however, 
with  the  vowel  in  the  Avord  fat.  If  from  this  I  remove 
the  consonant  following,  and  so  leave  the  a  at  the  end  of 
the  syllable,  instead  of  in  the  middle,  I  must  do  one  of 
two  things :  I  must  sound  it  either  as  the  a  in  fate^  or 
else  as  the  a  in  father.  Its  (so-called)  short  sound  it 
cannot  retain,  unless  it  be  supported  by  a  consonant  fol- 
lowing. For  this  reason  it  is  dependent.  The  sam6  is 
the  case  with  all  the  so-called  short  sounds,  viz..)  the  e  in 
bed,  i  in  ft,  u  in  hull,  o  in  not,  u  in  but. 

§  124.  It  is  not  every  vowel  that  is  susceptible  of  every 
modification,  /(ee)  and  7C  (oo)  arc  incapable  of  becoming 
broad.  The  e  in  bed,  although  both  broad  and  slender,  is 
incapable  of  becoming  independent.  For  the  u  in  but, 
and  for  the  o  of  certain  foreign  languages,  I  liav€  no  satis- 
factory systematic  position. 


§  125.   Vowel  System. 


Broad. 
Independent. 
a,  in  father  . 

c,  in  7>ichie,  Germ 


aw,  ill  bawl  . 


Slendc 


Independent, 
a,  m  fate, 
c  m  ferine,  lovij 

cc,  in  feet 

u,  of  the  German,  lonrf 

00,  in  book 

o  in  chiuso 

0,  in  note 


Dependent, 
a,  ia  fat. 

e,  in  ferine,  short, 
c,  iu  bed. 
■!,  pit. 

the  same,  short, 
ou,  in  could. 
the  same,  short. 
0,  in  not. 


From  these  the  semivowels  w  and  i/  make  a  transi- 
tion to  the  consonants  v  and  the  so-called  aspirate  of  g, 
respcctivel_y. 


ARTICULATE   SOUNDS. 


87 


Liquids. 


§  12G.  System  of  Consonants. 

Mutes. 

Aspirate 
Sharp.       F'.at. 
f 


Lenc. 

Sharp.      F^at. 

n 
n 

p                 V 
t               d 

I 

Ic              9 

r 

5 

Scmivouds, 


88  CEKTAIN    CO-MlilNATlONS 


CHAPTER    III. 

OF    CERTAIN    COJII31NATIOXS    OF    ARTICULATE    SOUNDS. 

§  127.  Certain  combinations  of  articulate  sounds  are 
incapable  of  being  pronounced.  The  following  rule  is 
one  that,  in  the  forthcoming  pages,  "will  frequently  be 
referred  to.  Tico  {or  more)  mutes,  of  different  degrees  of 
sharpness  and  flatness,  are  incapable  of  coining  together 
in  the  same  syllable.  For  instance,  b,  v,  d,  g,  z,  vfcc,  being 
flat,  and  p,  f  t,  k,  s,  &c.,  being  sharp,  such  combinations 
as  abt,  avt,  apd,  afd.  agt,  akd,  atz,  ads,  6cc.,  arc  unpro- 
nounceable. )S'pelt,  indeed,  they  may  be  ;  but  all  at- 
tempts at  pronunciation  end  in  a  change  of  the  com- 
bination. In  this  case  either  the  flat  letter  is  really 
changed  to  its  sharp  equivalent  {b  to  p,  d  to  /,  &c.)  or 
vice  versa  (p  to  b,  t  to  d).  The  combinations  abt  and 
agt,  io  be  pronounced,  must  become  either  apt  or  abd,  or 
else  akt  or  agd. 

The  word  mutes  in  the  third  sentence  of  this  section 
must  be  dwelt  on.  It  is  only  with  the  mutes  that  there 
is  an  impossibility  of  pronouncing  the  heterogeneous 
combinations  above-mentioned.  The  liquids  and  the 
vowels  are  flat ;  but  the  liquids  and  vowels,  although 
flat,  may  be  followed  by  a  sharp  consonant.  If  this  were 
not  the  case,  the  combinations  ap,  at,  alp,  alt,  (fcc,  would 
be  unpronounceable. 

The  semivoAvels,  also,  although  flat,  admit  of  being 
followed  by  a  sharp  consonant. 


'      OF   ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  89 

§  128.  Unstable  combinations. — That  certain  sounds 
in  combination  "with  others  have  a  tendency  to  undergo 
farther  changes,  may  be  collected  from  the  observation 
of  our  own  language,  as  wc  find  it  spoken  by  those  around 
us,  or  by  ourselves.  The  diphthong  cw  is  a  sample 
of  what  may  be  called  an  unsteady  or  unstable  com- 
bination. There  is  a  natural  tendency  to  change  it 
cither  into  oo  or  yoo  ;  perhaps  also  into  yew.  Hence  neio 
is  sometimes  sounded  iioo,  sometimes  nyoOy  and  some- 
times nyew. 

%  129.  Effect  of  the  semivowel  y  on  certain  letters 
n-Jien  they  precede  it. — Taken  by  itself  the  semivowel  y, 
followed  by  a  vowel  (i/a,  yee,  yo,  you,  &;c.),  forms  a 
stable  combination.  Not  so,  however,  if  it  be  preceded 
by  a  consonant,  of  the  series  t  or  s,  as  tya,  tyo  ;  dya, 
dyo ;  sya,  syo.  There  then  arises  an  unstable  combi- 
nation. Sya  and  syo  we  pronounce  as  sha  and  sho  ;  tya 
and  tyo  we  pronounce  as  cha  and  ja  (^.  e.,  tsh,  dzli). 
This  we  may  verify  from  our  pronunciation  of  words 
like  sure,  jncture,  verdure  {shoor,  pictshoor,  verdzhoor), 
having  previously  remarked  that  the  u  in  those  words 
is  not  soimded  as  oo  but  as  yoo.  The  effect  of  the  semi- 
vowel y,  taken  with  the  instability  of  the  combination  eio, 
accounts  for  the  tendency  to  pronounce  deio  as  if  written 
jciv. 

§  130.  Double  consonants  rare. — It  cannot  be  too 
clearly  understood  that  in  words  like  pitted,  stabbing, 
massy,  &c.,  there  is  no  real  reduplication  of  the  sounds 
of  /,  b,  and  s,  respectively.  Between  the  words  j^^cd 
(as  with  the  small-pox)  and  jntied  (as  being  an  object  of 
l>ity)  there  is  a  difference  in  spelling  only.  In  speech 
the  words  are  identical.  The  reduplication  of  the  conso- 
7iant  is,  in  English  and  the  generality  of  languages,  a 


90  CERTAIN  COMBINATIONS       ' 

conventional  mode  of  expressing  inioriling  the  shortness 
or  dependence^  of  the  vowel  jireceding. 

§  131.  Real  reduplications  of  consonants,  i.  e.,  redu- 
plications of  their  sound,  arc,  in  all  languages,  extremely 
rare.  In  English  they  occur  only  under  one  condition. 
In  componnd  and  derived  "words,  "where  the  original  root 
ends,  and  tlic  superadded  affix  begins  "with  the  same 
letter,  there  is  a  reduplication  of  the  sound  and  not  other- 
"wise.  In  the  "word  soulless,  the  I  is  doubled  to  the  ear  as 
■well  as  to  the  eye  ;  and  it  is  a  false  pronunciation  to  call 
it  soidess  (solcss).  In  the  '•  Deformed  Transformed  "  it  is 
made  to  rhyme  "with  7io  less,  improperly : — 

"  Clay,  not  dead  but  soulless, 

Though  DO  mortal  man  would  choose  Ihce, 
An  immortal  no  less 

Deigus  not  to  refuse  thee." 

In  the  follo^Ying  Avords,  all  of  "which  are  compounds,  "we 
have  true  specimens  of  the  doubled  consonant. 

ii  is  doubled  iu  unnatnral ,  innate,  oneness. 
I  —  soulless,  civil-list,  'palchj. 

k  —  book-case. 

t  —  seaport-town. 

It  must  not,  however,  be  concealed,  that,  in  the  mouths 
even  of  correct  speakers,  one  of  the  doubled  sounds  is  often 
dropped. 

§  132.  True  aspirates  rare. — The  criticism  applied  to 
"words  like  pitted,  &c.,  applies  also  to  "words  like  Philip, 
thin,  thine,  <5cc.  There  is  therein  no  sound  of  h.  How 
the  so-called  aspirates  differ  from  their  corresponding 
Icncs  has  not  yet  been  determined.  That  it  is  Jiot  by  the 
addition  of  h  is  evident.  Ph  and  th  are  conventional 
modes  of  spelling  simple  single  sounds,  Avhich  might  better 
be  expressed  by  simple  single  signs. 


OF  ARTICULATE   SOUNDS.  91 

In  our  own  language  the  true  aspirates,  like  the  true 
reduplications,  arc  found  only  in  compound  words ;  and 
there  they  are  often  slurred  in  the  pronunciation. 

We  find  p  and  h  iu  the  words  haphazard,  upholder. 


b  and  h 

— 

abhorrent,  cub-hunting. 

/and  h 

— 

knife-handle,  offhand. 

V  and  h 

— 

stave-head. 

d  and  /* 

— 

adhesive,  childhood. 

t  and  h 

— 

nuthook. 

th  and  h 

— 

withhold. 

k  and  h 

— 

inkhorn,  bakehouse. 

g  and  h 

— 

gig-horse. 

s  and  h 

— 

race-horse,  falsehood. 

z  and  /* 

— 

exhibit,  exhort. 

r  and  h 

— 

perhaps. 

I  and  h 

— 

wellhead,  foolh  a  rdg. 

?n  and  h 

— 

Amherst. 

It  sod  A 

— 

unhinge,  inherent,  unhappy. 

92  EUrUONY   AND   TEUMUTATION 


CHAPTER  IV. 

EUniONY    AND    THE    TERMUTATION    OF    LETTERS. 

§  133.  1.  Let  tlicrc  be  two  syllables  of  which  the 
one  ends  in  m,  and  the  other  begins  with  r,  as  we  have 
in  the  syllables  niuTi-  and  -rus  of  the  Latin  word  im- 
merus. 

2.  Let  an  ejection  of  the  intervening  letters  bring 
these  two  syllables  into  immediate  contact,  numriis. 
The  m  and  r  form  an  unstable  combination.  To 
remedy  this  there  is  a  tendency  to  insert  an  intervening 
sound. 

In  English,  the  form  which  the  Latin  word  mimerus 
takes  is  nuniher  ;  in  Spanish,  nomhre.  The  b  makes  no 
part  of  the  original  word,  but  has  been  inserted  for  the 
sake  of  eupJiomj ;  or,  to  speak  more  properly,  by  a  eu- 
phonic process.  The  word  euphony  is  derived  from  eu 
{well),  and  c^ojvri  {f6ii<x,  a  voice). 

§  134.  In  the  words  give  and  gave  we  have  a  change 
of  tense  expressed  by  a  change  of  vowel.  In  the  words 
price  and  prize  a  change  of  meaning  is  expressed  by  a 
chancre  of  consonant.  In  clothe  and  clad  there  is  a 
change  both  of  a  vowel  and  of  a  consonant.  In  the 
Avords  to  use  and  a  use  there  is  a  similar  change,  although 
it  is  not  expressed  by  the  spelling.  To  the  ear  the  verb 
to  use  ends  in  z,  although  not  to  the  eye.  All  these  are 
instances  o^  the  penniitation  of  letters. 


OF   LETTERS.  93 

Permutation  of  Vowels. 


a 

to 

t'l 

as 

7nan,  men. 

a 

to 

00, 

as. 

stand,  stood. 

a 

to 

u, 

as 

dare,  durst. 

a 

to 

e. 

as 

was,  were. 

ea 

to 

o, 

as 

speak,  spoken. 

ea=i 

to 

ea=e, 

as 

breath,  breathe. 

ee 

to 

^. 

as 

deep,  depth. 

ea 

to 

0, 

as 

bear,  bore. 

i 

to 

a. 

as 

spin,  span. 

i 

to 

w. 

as 

spin,  spun. 

l=ei 

to 

0. 

as 

smite,  smote. 

i=ci 

to 

?, 

as 

smite,  sjnittcn. 

i 

to 

«. 

as 

give,  gave. 

i=e'. 

to 

a, 

as 

rise,  raise. 

t 

to 

e, 

as 

sit,  set. 

ow 

to 

ew, 

as 

blow,  blew. 

o 

to 

^. 

as 

strong,  strength. 

00 

to 

ee, 

as 

tooth,  teeth. 

0 

to 

i, 

as 

top,  tip. 

0 

to 

c, 

as 

old,  elder;    tell,  told. 

8 

to 

<?> 

as 

brother,  brethren. 

6=oo 

to 

i. 

as 

do,  did. 

0=00 

to 

o=S 

as 

do,  done. 

00 

to 

0, 

as 

choose,  chose. 

Permutation  of  Consonants. 


f 

to 

''> 

life,  live ;  calf,  calves. 

> 

to 

^, 

breath,  to  breathe. 

> 

to 

d. 

seethe,  sod;  clothe,  clad. 

d 

to 

t, 

build,  built. 

s 

to 

^. 

use,  to  use. 

X 

to 

r. 

was,  were;  lose,  forlorn. 

In  have  and  had  we  have  the  ejection  of  a  sound ;  in 
irork  and  wrought,  the  transposition  of  one. 


94  PERMUTATION  OF   LETTERS. 

Permutation  of  Combinations. 


1 


ie=i                  to 

ow, 

as 

grind,  ground. 

ow                      to 

i=^€i, 

as 

mouse,  mice  ;  cow,  kine. 

ink                    to 

augh, 

as 

drink,  draught. 

ing                    to 

ough, 

as 

bring,  brought. 

y  (formerly  g\ 

ougfi, 

as 

buy,  bought. 

igh=ei             to 

ough. 

as 

Jight,  fought. 

eek                     to 

ough, 

as 

seek,  sought. 

It  must  be  noticed  that  the  list  above  is  far  from 
being  an  exhaustive  one.  The  expression  too  of  the 
changes  undergone  has  been  rendered  difficult  on  account 
of  the  imperfection  of  our  orthography.  The  "vvhole 
section  has  been  -written  in  illustration  of  the  meaning 
of  the  word  per?mUation,  rather  than  for  any  specific 
object  in  grammar. 


FORMATION   OF   SYLLABLES.  95 


CHAPTER  V. 

ON    THE    FORMATION    OF    SYLLADLES. 

§  135  In  respect  to  the  formation  of  syllables,  I  am 
aware  of  no  more  than  one  point  that  requires  any  espe- 
cial consideration. 

In  certain  words,  of  more  than  one  syllabic,  it  is 
difficult  to  say  to  which  syllabic  an  intervening  conso- 
nant belongs.  For  instance,  does  the  v  in  river,  and  the 
e  va.  fever,  belong  to  the  first  or  the  second  syllable  ?  Are 
the  Avords  to  be  divided  thus,  ri-ver,  fe-ver  ?  or  thus, 
riv-er,  fe-ver  7 

The  solution  of  the  question  lies  by  no  means  on  the 
surface. 

In  the  first  place,  the  case  is  capable  of  being  viewed 
in  two  points  of  view — an  etymological  and  a  phonetic 
one. 

That  the  c  and  r  in  become,  berhymed,  &c.,  belong  to 
the  second  syllable,  we  determine  at  once  by  taking  the 
words  to  pieces ;  whereby  we  get  the  words  come  and 
rhymed  in  an  isolated  independent  form.  But  this  fiict, 
although  it  settles  the  point  in  etymology,  leaves  it  as  it 
was  in  phonetics  ;  since  it  in  nowise  follows,  that,  because 
the  c  in  the  simple  word  come  is  exclusively  attached  to 
the  letter  that  succeeds,  it  is,  in  the  compoiind  word 
become,  exclusively  attached  to  it  also. 

To  the  following  point  of  structure  in  the  consonantal 
sounds  the  reader's  attention  is  particularly  directed. 


96  FORMATION   OF  SYLLABLES, 

1.  Let  the  vowel  a  (as  in  fate)  be  sounded. — 2.  Let 
it  be  followed  by  the  consonant  /?,  so  as  to  form  the  syl- 
lable ap.  To  form  the  sound  of  p,  it  will  be  found  that 
the  lips  close  on  the  sound  of  a,  and  arrest  it.  Now,  if 
the  lips  be  left  to  themselves  they  will  not  remain  closed 
on  the  sound,  but  will  open  again;  in  a  slight  degree 
indeed,  but  in  a  degree  sufficient  to  cause  a  kind  of 
vibration,  or,  at  any  rate,  to  allow  an  escape  of  the 
remainder  of  the  current  of  breath  by  which  the  sound 
was  originally  formed.  To  re-open  in  a  slight  degi-ee  is 
the  natural  tendency  of  the  lips  in  the  case  exhibited 
above. 

Now,  by  an  effort,  let  this  tendency  to  re-open  be 
counteracted.  Let  the  remaining  current  of  breath  be 
cut  short.  We  have,  then,  only  this,  viz.^  so  much  of 
the  syllable  ufp  as  can  be  formed  by  the  closure  of  the 
lips.  All  that  portion  of  it  that  is  caused  by  their  re- 
opening is  deficient.  The  resulting  sound  seems  trun- 
cated, cut  short,  or  incomplete.  It  is  the  sound  of  p, 
minus  the  remnant  of  breath.  All  of  the  sound  j)  that  is 
now  left  is  formed,  not  by  the  escape  of  the  breath,  but  by 
the  arrest  of  it. 

The  2?  in  up  is  vl  final  sound.  With  initial  sounds  the 
case  is  different.  Let  the  lips  be  closed^  and  let  an  at- 
tempt be  made  to  form  the  syllable  pa  by  suddenly 
opening  them.  The  sound  appears  incomplete ;  but  its 
incompleteness  is  at  the  beginning  of  the  sound,  and  not 
at  the  end  of  it.  In  the  natural  course  of  things  there 
would  have  been  a  current  of  breatli  preceding,  and  this 
current  would  have  given  a  vibration,  now  wanting.  All 
the  sound  that  is  formed  here  is  formed,  not  by  the  arrest 
of  breath,  but  by  the  escape  of  it. 

I  feel  that  this  account  of  the  mechanism  of  the  appa- 
rently simple  sound  jh  labours  under  all  the  difficulties 


FOiniATION    OF    SYLLABLES,  97 

that  attend  the  description  of  a  sound  ;  and  for  this  reason 
I  again  request  the  reader  to  satisfy  himself  cither  of  its 
truth  or  of  its  inaccuracy,  before  he  proceeds  to  the  con- 
clusions that  will  ho  (IraMTi  from  it. 

The  account,  however,  being  recognized,  we  have  in 
the  sound  of  2>>  tAvo  elements  : — 

1.  That  formed  by  the  current  of  air  and  tlic  closure 
of  the  lips,  as  in  op.  This  may  be  called  the  sound  of 
breath  arrested. 

2.  That  formed  by  the  current  of  air,  and  the  opening 
of  the  lips,  as  in  pa.  This  may  be  called  the  sound  of 
breath  escaping. 

Now  what  may  be  said  of  j)  may  be  said  of  all  the 
other  consonants,  the  words  tongue,  teeth.,  &c.,  being  used 
instead  of  lips,  according  to  the  case. 

Let  the  sound  of  breath  arrested  be  expressed  by  tt, 
and  that  of  breath  escaping  be  expressed  by  ^,  the  two 
together  formp  (7r-r^=7j). 

Thus  ap  (as  quoted  above)  is  p  —  zs,  or  tt  ;  whilst  pa 
(sounded  similarly  is  ^>  —  tt,  or  to". 

In  the  formation  of  syllables,  I  consider  that  the 
sound  of  breath  arrested  belongs  to  the  first,  and  the 
sound  of  breath  escaping  to  the  second  syllable ;  that  if 
each  sound  were  expressed  by  a  separate  sign,  the  word 
happy  would  be  divided  thus,  hair--:sy ;  and  that  such 
<vould  be  the  case  with  all  consonants  between  two  sylla- 
bles. The  whole  consonant  belongs  neither  to  one  syllable 
nor  the  other.  Half  of  it  belongs  to  each.  The  reduplica- 
tion of  the  ji  in  happy,  the  t  in  pitted,  »fec.,  is  a  mere 
point  of  spelling. 


98  ON  QUilNTITY. 


CHArTER    VI. 


ON     QU.iNTITY. 


§  13G.  The  dependent  vowels,  as  tlic  a  in  fat,  i  in  fit, 
u  in  hit.,  0  in  not,  have  the  cliaracter  of  being  uttered 
with  rapidity,  and  they  pass  quickly  in  the  enunciation, 
the  voice  not  resting  on  them.  This  rapidity  of  utterance 
becomes  more  evident  when  we  contrast  with  them  the 
prolonged  sounds  of  the  a  in  fate,  ee  in  feet,  oo  in  boo/c, 
or  o  in  note ;  wherein  the  utterance  is  retarded,  and 
wherein  the  voice  rests,  delays,  or  is  prolonged.  The  f 
and  t  of  fate  are  separated  by  a  longer  interval  than 
the  y  and  if  of  ya^;  ami  the  same  is  the  case  with  ^/, 
ffct,  (fcc. 

Let  the  7i  and  the  t  of  not  be  each  as  1,  the  o  also 
being  as  1 ;  then  each  letter,  consonant  or  vowel,  shall 
constitute  J-  of  the  whole  word. 

Let,  however,  the  n  and  the  t  of  not  be  each  as  1,  the 
0  being  as  2.  Then,  instead  of  each  consonant  constitut- 
ing i  of  the  whole  Avord,  it  shall  constitute  but  |. 

Upon  the  comparative  extent  to  which  the  voice  is  pro- 
longed, the  division  of  vowels  and  syllables  into  lo?ig  and 
short  has  been  established :  the  o  in  7iote  being  long,  the 
0  in  not  being  short.  And  the  longness  or  shortness  of  a 
vowel  or  syllable  is  said  to  be  its  qtiaritity. 

§  13T.  Attention  is  directed  to  the  word  vowel.  The 
longness  or  shortness  of  a  vowel  is  one  thing.  The  long- 
ness or  shortness  of  a  sijlhihlc  nnnthcr.     Tliis  difference  is 


ox   QL-ANTITY  99 

important  in  prosody  ;  especially  in  comparing  the  English 
■\vith  the  classical  metres. 

The  voAvel  in  the  syllabic  see  is  long ;  and  long  it  re- 
mains, whether  it  stand  as  it  is,  or  be  followed  by  a  conso- 
nant, as  in  see-n,  or  by  a  vowel,  as  in  see-ing-. 

The  vowel  in  the  word  sit  is  short.  If  followed  by  a 
vowel  it  becomes  unpronounceable,  except  as  the  ea  in  seat 
or  the  t  in  sight.  By  a  consonant,  however,  it  777a?/  bo 
followed.  Such  is  the  case  in  the  word  quoted — sit.  Fol- 
lowed by  a  second  consonant,  it  still  retains  its  shortness, 
c.  g.,  sits.  Whatever  the  comparative  length  of  the  si/l- 
iables,  see  and  seen,  sit  and  sits,  may  be,  the  length  of 
their  respective  vowels  is  the  same. 

Now,  if  we  determine  the  character  of  the  syllable  by 
the  character  of  the  vowel,  all  syllables  are  short  where- 
in there  is  a  short  vowel,  and  all  are  long  wherein 
there  is  a  long  one.  Hence,  measured  by  the  quantity  of 
the  vowel,  the  word  sits  is  short,  and  the  syllable  see-  in 
seeing  is  long. 

§  138.  But  it  is  well  known  that  this  vievr  is  not  the 
view  commonly  taken  of  the  syllables  see  (in  seeing)  and 
sits.  It  is  well  known,  that,  in  the  eyes  of  a  classical 
scholar,  the  see  (in  seeing)  is  shorl,  and  that  in  the  word 
sits  the  i  is  long. 

The  classic  differs  from  the  Englishman  thus, — He 
measures  his  quantity,  not  hy  the  length  of  the  vowel,  hut 
hy  the  length  of  the  syllable  taken  altogether.  The  per- 
ception of  this  distinction  enables  us  to  comprehend  the 
following  statements. 

a.  That  vowels  long  by  nature  may  appear  to  become 
short  by  position,  and  vice  versa. 

h.  That,  by  a  laxity  of  language,  the  voicel  may  be 
said  to  have  changed  its  quantity,  whilst  it  is  the  syllahlo 
alone  that  has  been  altered. 


100  ON   QUANTITY. 

c.  That  if  one  person  measures  his  quantities  by  the 
vowels,  and  another  by  the  syllables,  -what  is  short  to  the 
one,  shall  be  long  to  the  other,  and  vice  versa.  The  same 
is  the  case  "with  nations. 

d.  That  one  of  the  most  essential  diflfercnccs  between 
the  English  .and  the  classical  languages  is  that  the  quan- 
tities (as  far  as  they  go)  of  the  first  are  measured  by  the 
vowel,  those  of  the  latter  by  the  syllable.  To  a  Roman 
the  word  monument  consists  of  two  short  syllables  and 
one  long  one ;  to  an  Enf^lishman  it  contains  three  short 
syllables. 


ON   ACCENT.  101 


CIIArTER   VIL 


ON    ACCENT. 


§  139.  In  the  -wdrd  tyrant  there  is  an  emphasis,  or 
stress,  \\\)0\\  the  first  syllable.  In  the  "word  incsume 
there  is  an  emjdiasis,  or  stress,  on  the  second  syllable. 
This  emphasis,  or  stress,  is  called  accent.  The  circum- 
stance of  a  syllable  bearing  an  accent  is  sometimes  ex- 
pressed by  a  mark  (') ;  in  ■which  case  the  "word  is  said  to 
be  accentuated,  /.  c,  to  have  the  accent  signified  in 
writing. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllabic — Brigade,  'pre- 
tence, harpoOn,  relieve,  deter,  assihne,  hes6ught,  bereft, 
before^  abroad,  ahdde,  abstruse,  intermix',  superadd, 
cavalier. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllabic  but  one — Anlchor, 
ar'gue,  hasten,  father,  f6xes,  smiting,  husband,  market, 
vapour,  barefoot,  archangel,  bespatter,  disable,  terrific. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable  but  two — Rcg'u- 
hir,  an'tidote,  for'tifij,  susceptible,  incontrovertible. 

Words  accented  on  the  last  syllable  but  three  (rare) — 
Receptacle,  regulating,  tdlkativeness,  dbsolutelt/,  lumin- 
ary,  inevitable,  &c. 

§  140.  A  great  number  of  "words  are  distinguished  by 
tlie  difiercncc  of  accent  alone. 

Au  dUrihiitc.  To  atlrlhntc. 

Tlie  mouth  August.  An.  august  porson. 

A  com'jmct.  Compact  (close). 


102  ON  ACCENT. 

To  con'jiirc  (magically).  Conjure   (enjoiii). 

Dcs'ert,  wilderness.  Desert,  merit. 

Invalid,  not  valid.  Invalid,  a  sickly  person. 

Miiiutfi,  60  seconds.  Minvte,  smalL 

Supine,  part  of  speech.  Supine,  careless,  <fec. 

§  141.  In  iy'rant  and  ;>rc.v;??/fe,  "\ve  deal  Avitli  single 
words  ;  and  in  each  v:ord  ■wc  determine  Avliicli  syllable  is 
accented.  Contrasted  "with  the  sort  of  accent  that  follows, 
this  may  be  called  a  verbal  accent. 

In  the  line, 

Letter  for  us,  perhaps,  it  might  appear, 

(Pope's  "  Essay  on  Man,"  i.  169.) 

the.  pronoun  vs  is  strongly  brought  forward.  An  especial 
stress  or  emphasis  is  laid  npon  it,  denoting  that  there  are 
oOier  hein^s  to  wJiom  it  might  not  appear^  &c.  This  is 
collected  from  the  context.  Here  there  is  a  logical 
accent.  "  When  one  word  m  a  sentence  is  distinguished 
by  a  stress,  as  more  important  than  the  rest,  wc  may  say 
that  it  is  emphatical,  or  that  an  emphasis  is  laid  upon 
it.  AVhen  one  syllable  in  a  word  is  distinguished  b}^  a 
stress,  and  more  audible  than  the  rest,  we  say  that  it  is 
accented,  or  that  an  accent  is  put  upon  it.  Accent,  there- 
fore, is  to  syllables  what  emphasis  is  to  sentences  ;  it 
distinguishes  one  from  the  crowd,  and  brings  it  forward  to 
observation." — N arcs'  "  Orthoepy,"  part  ii.  chap.  1. 


OETHOGRAPHY  103 


CHAPTER    YIII. 


OKTiiOGRArny. 


§  142.  Orthoepy,  a  Avord  derived  from  the  Greek 
orthon  {upright),  and  epos  {a  tvord),  signifies  the  right 
utterance  of  Avords.  Orthoepy  determines  words,  and 
deals  with  a  hmguage  as  it  is  spoken  ;  orthography  deter- 
mines the  correct  spelling  of  words,  and  deals  with  a 
language  as  it  is  written.  This  latter  term  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  words  orthos  {upright),  and  graphe,  or 
grafcB  {icriting).  Orthography  is  less  essential  to  lan- 
guage than  orthoepy ;  since  all  languages  are  spoken, 
whilst  but  a  few  languages  are  written.  Orthography 
presupposes  orthoepy.  Orthograjihy  addresses  itself  to 
the  eye,  orthoej^y  to  the  car.  Orthoepy  deals  with  the 
articulate  sounds  that  constitute  syllables  and  words ;  or- 
thography treats  of  the  signs  by  which  such  articulate 
sounds  are  expressed  in  writing.  A  letter  is  the  sign  of  an 
articulate  (and,  in  the  case  of  A,  of  an  inarticulate)  sound. 

§  143.  A  full  and  perfect  system  of  orthography  con- 
sists in  two  things  : — 1.  The  possession  of  a  sufficient  and 
consistent  alphabet.  2.  The  right  application  of  such  an 
alphabet.     This  position  may  be  illustrated  more  fully. 

§  144.  First,  in  respect  to  a  sufficient  and  consistent 
alphabet — Let  there  be  in  a  certain  language,  simple 
single  articulate  sounds,  to  the  number  of  forty,  Avhilst 
the  simple  single  signs,  or  letters,  expressive  of  them, 
amount  to  no  more  than  ihirt)/.     In  this  case  the  alphabet 


104  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

is  insufficient.  It  is  not  full  enough:  since  ten  of  the 
sim2:)le  single  articulate  sounds  have  no  corresponding 
signs  -whereby  they  may  he  expressed.  In  our  own  lan- 
guage, the  sounds  (amongst  others)  of  th  in  thin,  and  of  th 
in  thine,  are  simple  and  single,  ■whilst  there  is  no  sign 
e:[ually  simple. and  single  to  spell  them  Avith. 

§  145.  An  alphabet,  however,  may  be  sufficient,  and 
yet  imperfect.  It  may  err  on  the  score  of  inconsistency. 
Let  there  be  in  a  given  language  two  simple  single 
sounds,  (for  instance)  the  j)  in  /ja/e,  and  the  /  in  fate. 
Let  these  sounds  stand  in  a  given  relation  to  each  other. 
Let  a  given  sign,  for  instance,  £  (as  is  actually  the  case 
in  Hebrew),  stand  for  the  p  in  j^ate ;  and  let  a  second 
sign  be  required  for  the  /  in  fate.  Concerning  the 
nature  of  this  latter  sign,  two  views  may  be  taken.  One 
framer  of  the  alphabet,  perceiving  that  the  two  sounds 
are  mere  modifications  of  each  other,  may  argue  that 
no  new  sign  (or  letter)  is  at  all  necessary,  but  that  the 
sound  of  /  in  fate  may  be  expressed  by  a  mere  modifica- 
tion of  the  sign  (or  letter)  s,  and  may  be  written  thus  Q, 
or  thus  s'  or  s',  &c. ;  upon  the  principle  that  like  sounds 
should  be  expressed  by  like  signs.  The  other  framer 
of  the  alphabet,  contemplating  the  difference  between 
the  two  sounds,  rather  than  the  likeness,  may  propose, 
not  a  mere  modification  of  the  sim  £,  but  a  letter  alto- 
gethcr  new,  such  as  /,  or  (p,  &c.,  upon  the  principle  that 
sounds  of  a  given  degree  of  dissimilitude  should  be 
expressed  by  signs  of  a  different  degree  of  dissimili- 
tude. 

Hitherto  the  expression  of  the  sounds  in  point  is 
a  matter  of  convenience  only.  No  question  has  been 
raised  as  to  its  consistency  or  inconsistency.  This  be- 
gins under  conditions  like  the  following : — Let  there 
be  in  the  language  in  point  the  sounds  of  the  i  in  tin, 


ORTnOGEAPIIY.  105 

and  of  tlic  tJi  in  Ihin ;  Avliicli  (it  may  be  remembered) 
are  precisely  in  tlie  same  relation  to  each  other  as  the  p 
in  pate  and  the/  in  fate.  Let  each  of  these  sounds  have 
a  sign  or  letter  expressive  of  it.  Upon  the  nature  of 
these  signs,  or  letters,  will  depend  the  nature  of  the  sign 
or  letter  required  for  the /in  fate.  If  the  letter  express- 
ing the  th  in  thi?i  be  a  mere  modification  of  the  letter  ex- 
pressing the  t  in  tin,  then  must  the  letter  expressive  of 
i\io  f  in  f ate  be  a  mere  modification  of  the  letter  expressing 
the  p  in  pate,  and  vice  versa.  If  this  be  not  the  case,  the 
alphabet  is  inconsistent. 

In  the  English  alphabet  wc  have  (amongst  others)  the 
following  inconsistency : — The  sound  of  the  f  in  fate,  in 
a  certain  relation  to  the  sound  of  the  p  in  pate,  is  ex 
pressed  by  a  totally  distinct  sign  ;  "whereas,  the  sound  of 
the  th  in  thin  (similarly  related  to  the  t  in  tin)  is  expressed 
by  no  new  sign,  but  by  a  mere  modification  of  ^;  viz.,  th. 

§  14G.  xV  third  element  in  the  faultiness  of  an  alphabet 
is  the  faidt  of  erroneous  representation.  The  best  illustra- 
tion of  this  we  get  from  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  where  the 
sounds  of  r  and  ^,  mere  varieties  of  each  other,  are  re- 
presented by  distinct  and  dissimilar  signs,  whilst  n  and 
p,  sounds  specifically  distinct,  are  expressed  by  a  mere 
modification  of  the  same  sign,  or  letter. 

§  14T.  The  right  application  of  an  alphabet. — An 
alphabet  may  be  both  sufficient  and  consistent,  accurate  in 
its  representation  of  the  alliances  between  articulate 
sounds,  and  in  no  wise  redundant ;  and  yet,  withal,  it  may 
be  so  wrongly  applied  as  to  be  defective.  Of  defect  in  the 
use  or  application  of  the  letters  of  an  alphal)et,  the  three 
main  causes  are  the  following  : — 

a.    Unsteadiness  in  the  jfower  of  letters. — Of  this  there 
are  two  kinds.     In  the  first,  there  is  one  sound  with  two 
(or  more)  ways  of  expressing  it.     Such  is   the  sound  of 
G" 


106  ORTHOGRAPHY. 

the  letter  /  in  English.  In  words  of  Anglo-Saxon  origin 
it  is  spelt  with  a  single  simple  sign,  as  in  Jill ;  whilst  in 
Greek  wonls  it  is  denoted  by  a  combination,  as  in  Philip. 
The  reverse  of  this  takes  j^lace  with  the  letter  g- ;  here  a 
single  sign  has  a  double  power  ;  in  gibbet  it  is  sounded  as 
j,  and  in  gibberish  as  g  in  got. 

b.  The  aim  at  secondary  objects. — The  natural  aim  of 
orthograplw,  of  spelling,  or  of  writing,  is  to  express  the 
sounds  of  a  language.  Syllables  and  words  it  takes  as 
they  meet  the  ear,  it  translates  them  by  appropriate  signs, 
and  so  paints  them,  as  it  were,  to  the  e^'e.  That  this  is 
the  natural  and  primary  object  is  self-evident ;  but  beyond 
this  natural  ami  primary  object  there  is,  with  the  ortho- 
graphical s^'stcms  of  most  languages,  a  secondary  one, 
viz.yihc;  attempt  to  combine  with  the  representation  of  the 
sound  of  a  given  word,  the  representation  of  its  history 
and  oricrin. 

The  sound  of  the  c,  in  c//y,  is  the  sound  that  we  na- 
turally spell  with  tlie  letter  s,  and  if  the  expression  of 
this  sound  was  the  ordij  object  of  our  orthographists, 
the  word  would  be  spelt  accordingly  {sitij).  The  fol- 
lowing facts,  however,  traverse  this  simple  view  of  the 
matter.  The  word  is  a  derived  word  ;  it  is  transplanted 
into  our  own  language  from  the  Latin,  where  it  is  spelt 
with  a  c  {civitas)  ;  and  to  change  this  c  into  s  conceals  the 
origin  and  history  of  the  word.  For  this  reason  the  c 
is  retained,  although,  as  far  as  the  mere  expression  of 
sounds  (the  primary  object  in  orthography)  is  concerned, 
the  letter  is  a  superfluity.  In  cases  like  the  one  adduced 
the  orthography  is  bent  to  a  secondary  end,  and  is  tra- 
versed by  the  etymology. 

c.  Obsoleteness. — It  is  very  evident  that  modes  of 
spelling  Avhich  at  one  time  may  have  been  correct,  may, 
hx  a  change  of  pronunciation,  become  incorrect ;  so  that 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  107 

orthography  becomes  obsolete  -whenever  there  takes  place 
a  change  of  speech  without  a  correspondent  change  of 
spelling. 

§  148.  From  the  foregoing  sections  we  arrive  at  the 
theory  of  a  full  and  perfect  alphabet  and  orthography, 
of  which  a  few  (amongst  many  others)  of  the  chief  con- 
ditions are  as  follow : — 

1.  That  for  every  simple  single  sound,  incapable  of 
being  represented  by  a  combination  of  letters,  there  be  a 
simple  single  sign. 

2.  That  sounds  within  a  determined  degree  of  like- 
ness be  represented  by  signs  within  a  determined  degree 
of  likeness  ;  whilst  sounds  bej^ond  a  certain  degree  of 
likeness  be  represented  by  distinct  and  different  signs,  and 
that  uniformly. 

3.  That  no  sound  have  more  than  one  sign  to  express 
it. 

4.  That  no  sign  express  more  than  one  sound. 

5.  That  the  jirimary  aim  of  orthography  be  to  express 
the  sounds  of  words,  and  not  their  histories. 

6.  That  changes  of  speech  be  followed  by  correspond- 
ing changes  of  spelling. 

With  these  jirinciples  in  our  mind  we  may  measure 
the  imperfections  of  our  OAvn  and  of  other  alphabets. 

§  149.  Previous  to  considering  the  sufficiency  or  in- 
sufficiency of  the  English  alphabet,  it  is  necessary  to 
enumerate  the  elementary  articulate  sounds  of  the  lan- 
guage. The  vowels  belonsrino;  to  the  Enoilish  lanoiuaire 
are  the  followinir  twelve  : — 


1. 

Tliat 

of  rt   in  father. 

1. 

That  of 

e   in  bed. 

o 

— 

a  — fat. 

8. 

— 

i  — pit. 

3. 

— 

a  — fate. 

9. 

— 

ce — feet. 

4. 

— 

aw —  baicl. 

10. 

— 

u  —  hull. 

5. 

— 

0   —  not. 

]1. 

— 

CO — fool. 

C. 

— 

0   —  note. 

12. 

— 

u  —  diick 

108  OllTIIOGKArilY. 

The  (liplilhungal  sounds  iivcfoitr. 
1.  That  of 


on 
cw 


4.         — 


house. 

new. 

oil. 

bite. 


This  last  sound  being  most  incorrectly  expressed  by 
the  single  letter  i. 

The  consonantal  sounds  are,  1.  the  tvio  semivoAvels  ; 
2.  the  four  liquids  ;  3.  fourteen  out  of  the  sixteen  mutes  ; 
4.  ch  in  chest,  and  ;  in  jest,  compound  sibilants  ;  5.  7ig, 
as  in  king  ;  G.  the  aspirate  //.     In  all,  twenty-four. 


1.  10 

as  ill 

IBCt. 

13.  th 

as  in 

thin. 

.2.7/ 

— 

yd. 

11.  th 

— 

thine. 

3.  m 

— 

man. 

15.  jr 

— 

gun. 

L  n 

— 

not. 

10.  k 

— 

kind. 

5./ 

— 

let. 

11.  s 

— 

sin. 

0.  r 

— 

run. 

18..- 

— 

zeal. 

l.p 

— 

pale. 

10.  sh 

— 

shine. 

S.b 

— 

ban. 

20.  n 

—  a. 

■Hre,r/lazicr. 

9-./ 

— 

fan. 

21.  ch 

— 

chest. 

10.  V 

— 

van. 

22.  j 

— 

jest. 

11.  t 

— 

tin. 

23.  n^/ 

— 

kinrj. 

12.  d 

— 

din. 

24. /i 

— 

hot. 

§  150.  Some  writers  would  add  to  these  the  addi- 
tional sound  of  the  e  ferme,  of  the  French ;  believing 
that  the  vowel  in  words  like  their  and  vein  has  a  dif- 
ferent sound  from  the  vowel  in  words  like  there  and 
vain.  For  my  own  part  I  cannot  detect  such  a  differ- 
ence either  in  my  own  speech  or  that  of  my  neigh- 
bours ;  although  I  am  far  from  denying  that  in  certain 
dialects  of  our  language  such  may  have  been  the  case. 
The  following  is  an  extract  from  the '"Danish  Grammar 
for  Englishmen,"  by  Professor  Kask,  whose  eye,  in  the 
matter  in  question,  seems  to  haVe  misled  his  ear ;  "  The 


ORTUOGKArnY.  109 

fcryjie,  or  close  e,  is  very  frequent  in  Danish,  but 
scarcely  perceptible  in  English  ;  unless  in  such  words  as 
l/teir,  vein,  veil,  Avhich  appear  to  sound  a  little  different 
from  there,  vain,  vale." 

^  151.  The  vowels  being  twelve,  the  diphthongs  four, 
and  the  consonantal  sounds  twenty-four,  we  have  alto- 
gether as  many  as  forty  sounds,  some  being  so  closely 
allied  to  each  other  as  to  be  mere  modifications,  and 
otheis  being  combinations  rather  than  simple  sounds  ; 
all,  however,  agreeing  in  requiring  to  be  expressed  by 
letters  or  by  combinations  of  letters,  and  to  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other.  This  enables  us  to  appreciate — 
§  152.  The  insufficiency  of  the  English  alphabet. — 

a.  In  respect  to  the  vowels. — Notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  sounds  of  the  a  in  father,  fate,  and  fat,  and 
of  the  o  and  the  aw  in  note,  not,  and  baivl,  are  modifi- 
cations of  a  and  o  respcctivel}^,  we  have  still  sis  vowel 
sounds  specifically  distinct,  for  which  (y  being  a  conso- 
nant rather  than  a  A'Owel)  we  have  but  five  signs.  The 
7C  in  duck,  specifically  distinct  from  the  u  in  bull,  has  no 
specifically  distinct  sign  to  represent  it. 

b.  In  respect  to  the  consonants. — The  th  in  thin,  the 
th  in  t.hine,  the  sh  in  shine,  the  z  in  azure,  and  the  ng"  in 
king^  five  sounds  specifically  distinct,  and  five  soimds 
perfectly  simple  require  corresponding  signs,  which  they 
have  not. 

§  153.  Its  inconsistency. — The  f  in  fan,  and  the  v  in 
van,  sounds  in  a  certain  degree  of  relationship  to  p  and  b, 
are  expressed  by  sounds  as  unlike  as  f  is  unlike  p,  and 
as  v  is  unlike  b.  The  sound  of  the  th  in  thin,  the  th  in 
thine,  the  sh  in  shine,  similarly  related  to  t,  cl,  and  s, 
are  expressed  by  signs  as  like  t,  d,  and  s,  respectively,  as 
th  and  sh. 

The  compound  sibilant  sound  of  j  in  jest  is  spelt  with 


no  ORTUOGEArilY. 

the  sinj^lc  sign  j,  Avliilst  the  compound  sibilant  sound  in 
chest  is  spelt  -with  the  combination  ch. 

§  154.  Erroneousness. — The  sound  of  the  ee  in  feet 
is  considered  the  long  (independent)  sound  of  the  e  in 
bed ;  whereas  it  is  the  long  (independent)  sound  of  the 
i  in  pit. 

The  i  in  bite  is  considered  as  the  long  (independent) 
sound  of  the  i  in  jnt ;  whereas  it  is  a  diphthongal 
sound. 

The  u  in  duck  is  looked  upon  as  a  modification  of 
the  71  in  bull;  whereas  it  is  a  specifically  distinct 
sound. 

The  on  in  house  and  the  oi  in  oil  are  looked  ujion 
as  the  compounds  of  o  and  i  and  of  o  and  ii  respect- 
ively ;  Avhereas  the  latter  element  of  them  is  not  i  and 
u,  hut  y  and  id. 

The  ih  in  tliin  and  the  th  in  thine  are  dealt  with  as 
one  and  the  same  sound  ;  whereas  they  are  somids  spe- 
cifically distinct. 

The  ch  in  chest  is  dealt  Avith  as  a  modification  of  c 
(either  with  the  power  of  k  or  of  s) ;  whereas  its  elements 
are  t  and  sh. 

§  155.  Redundancy. — As  far  as  the  representation  of 
sounds  is  concerned  the  letter  c  is  superfluous.  In  words 
like  citizeti  it  may  he  replaced  by  s;  in  words  like  cat 
by  k.  In  ch,  as  in  chest,  it  has  no  proper  place.  In  ch, 
as  in  mechanical,  is  may  be  replaced  by  k. 

Q  is  superfluous,  cio  or  kic  being  its  equivalent. 

X  also  is  superfluous,  ks,  gz,  or  z,  being  equivalent 
to  it. 

The  diphthongal  forms  cb  and  oe,  as  in  Apneas  and 
Croesus,  except  in  the  way  of  etymology,  are  superfluous 
and  redundant. 

§  156.    UnstecuVmess. — Here  we  have  (amongst  many 


ORTHOGEAPIIY.  Ill 

otlicr  examples),  1.  The  consonant  c  -with  tlie  ilcublc 
power  of  .•?  and  k  ;  2.  g-  ■with  its  sound  in  g-iin  and  also 
■with  its  sound  in  g-in ;  3.  x  -with  its  sounds  in  Alex- 
ander, apoplexy,  Xenophon. 

In  the  foregoing  examples  a  single  sign  has  a  double 
po^wer ;  in  the  ■words  Philip  Vind  Jilip,  &c.;  a  single  sound 
has  a  double  sign. 

In  respect  to  the  degree  "wherein  the  English  ortho- 
graphy is  made  subservient  to  etymolog}",  it  is  sufficient 
to  repeat  the  statement  that  as  many  as  three  letters 
c,  ce,  and  as  are  retained  in  the  alphabet  for  etymological 
purposes  only. 

§  157.  The  defects  noticed  in  the  preceding  sections 
arc  absolute  defects,  and  "would  exist,  as  they  do  at 
present,  were  there  no  language  in  the  ■^^■orld  except  the 
English.  This  is  not  the  case  "^vith  those  that  are  no"W 
about  to  be  noticed ;  for  them,  indeed,  the  "word  defect 
is  some"what  too  strong  a  term.  They  may  more  i)roperly 
be  termed  inconveniences. 

Compared  "with  the  languages  of  the  rest  of  the  "world 
the  use  of  many  letters  in  the  English  alphabet  is  sin- 
gular. The  letter  i  ("when  long  or  independent)  is,  \;\i\\ 
the  exception  of  England,  generally  sounded  as  ee.  With 
Englishmen  it  has  a  diphthongal  po"wer.  The  incon- 
venif^nce  of  this  is  the  necessity  that  it  imposes  upon  us, 
in  studying  foreign  languages,  of  unlearning  the  sound 
■which  we  give  it  in  our  own,  and  of  learning  the  sound 
which  it  bears  in  the  language  studied.  So  it  is  (amongst 
many  others)  with  the  letter  j.  In  English  this  has  the 
sound  of  dzh,  in  French  of  zh,  and  in  German  of  y. 
From  singularity  in  the  use  of  letters  arises  inconveni- 
ence in  the  study  of  foreign  tongues. 

In  using  /  as  dzh  there  is  a  second  objection.  It  is 
not  only  inconvenient,  but  it  is   theoretically  incorrect. 


112  OllXnOGRAPIIY. 

The  letter  j  was  originally  a  modification  of  the  vo^yel  i. 
The  Germans,  'svlio  used  it  as  the  semivowel  i/,  have  per- 
verted it  from  its  original  power  less  than  the  English 
have  done,  who  somid  it  dzh. 

"With  these  views  we  may  appreciate  in  the  EnglisV 
alphabet  and  orthography — 

Its  convenience  or  inconvenience  in  respect  to  learn- 
ill  r^  foreign  tongues. — The  sound  given  to  the  a  mfate  ia 
singular.     Other  nations  sound  it  as  a  m  father. 

The  sound  given  to  the  e,  long  (or  independent),  is 
singular.  Other  nations  sound  it  either  as  a  in  fate,  or 
as  efcrmc. 

The  sound  given  to  the  i  in  bite  is  singular.  Other 
nations  sound  it  as  ce  in  feet. 

The  sound  given  to  the  oo  in  fool  is  singular.  Other 
nations  sound  it  as  the  o  in  note,  or  as  the  6  chiuso. 

The  sound  given  to  the  u  in  duck  is  singular.  Other 
nations  sound  it  as  the  ii  in  hull. 

The  sound  given  to  the  oil  in  Jiouse  is  singular.  Other 
nations,  more  correctly,  represent  it  by  au  or  aio. 

The  sound  given  to  the  lo  in  icet  is  somewhat  singular, 
but  is  also  correct  and  convenient.  With  many  nations  it 
is  not  found  at  all,  whilst  with  those  Avhere  it  occurs  it  has 
the  sound  (there  or  thereabouts)  of  v. 

The  sound  given  to  y  is  somewhat  singular.  In 
Danish  it  has  a  vowel  power.  In  German  the  semi- 
vowel sound  is  spelt  with  j. 

The  sound  given  to  z  is  not  the  sound  which  it  has  in 
German  and  Italian ,  but  its  power  in  English  is  conve- 
nient and  correct. 

The  sound  given  to  cJi  in  chest  is  singular.  In  othei 
languages  it  has  generally  a  guttural  sound;  in  French 
that  of  sh.  The  English  usage  is  more  correct  than  the 
French,  but  less  correct  than  the  German. 


ortiiographyI  ^ ' 

The  sound  given  toj  (as  said  befo]^ 

§  158.  The  historical  'projprietij  or 
certain  letters. — The  use  of  i  with  a  diphthon^ral  pou  cr 
is  not  only  singuhir  and  inconvenient,  but  also  hisioricalli/ 
incorrect.  The  Greek  iota,  from  Avhence  it  originates, 
has  the  sound  of  i  and  ec,  as  in  pit  and/ee^. 

The  y,  sounded  as  in  ijct,  is  historically  incorrect.  It 
grew  out  of  the  Greek  u,  a  vov-el,  and  no  semivowel. 
The  Danes  still  use  it  as  such,  that  is,  with  the  power  of 
the  German  ii. 

The  use  of  j  for  dzJi  is  historically  incorrect. 

The  use  of  c  for  k  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek  as 
mechanical,  ascetic.  &c.,  is  historically  incorrect.  The 
form  c  is  the  representative  of  7  and  a  and  not  of  the 
Greek  kappa. 

§  159.  On  certain  conventional  modes  of  spelling. — 
Li  the  Greek  language  the  sounds  of  0  in  not  and  of  0  in 
note  (although  allied)  are  expressed  by  the  unlike  signs 
(or  letters)  0  and  w,  respectively.  In  most  other  lan- 
guages the  difference  between  the  sounds  is  considered 
too  slight  to  require  for  its  expression  signs  so  distinct 
and  dissimilar.  In  some  languages  the  difference  is 
neglected  altogether.  In  many,  hoAvevcr,  it  is  ex- 
pressed, and  that  by  some  modification  of  the  original 
letter. 

Let  the  sign  (  " )  denote  that  the  vowel  over  which  it 
stands  is  long,  or  independent,  whilst  the  sign  (  "" ) 
indicates  shortness,  or  dependence.  In  such  a  case, 
instead  of  Avriting  not  and  nwt,  like  the  Greeks,  we  may 
Avrite  n6t  and  not,  the  sign  serving  for  a,  fresh  letter. 
Herein  the  expression  of  the  nature  of  the  sound  is 
natural,  because  the  natural  use  of  (  " )  and  (  " )  is  to 
ex})ress  length  or  shortness,  dependence  or  independ- 
ence.     Now,    supposing    the    broad   sound   of    0   to   be 


11-i  ORTnOGRAPIIY. 

already  represented,  it  is  very  evident  that,  of  the 
other  two  sounds  of  o,  the  one  must  he  long  (inde- 
pendent), and  the  other  short  (dependent) ;  and  as  it  is 
onl}'  necessar}^  to  express  one  of  these  conditions,  we  may, 
if  wc  choose,  use  the  sign  (  ")  alone;  its  presence  de- 
noting length,  and  its  absence  shortness  (independence  or 
dependence). 

As  signs  of  this  kind,  one  mark  is  as  good  as  another ; 
and  instead  of  ( ")  wc  may,  if  we  chose,  substitute  such  a 
mark  as  (')  and  write  n6t  =  not — nwt==n6te  ;  provided 
only  that  the  sign  ( ' )  expresses  no  other  condition  or 
affection  of  a  sound.  This  use  of  the  mark  ( ' ),  as  a 
sign  that  the  vowel  over  which  it  is  placed  is  long  (inde- 
pendent), is  common  in  many  languages.  But  is  this 
use  of  ( ' )  natural  ^  For  a  reason  that  the  reader  has 
anticipated,  it  is  not  natural,  but  conventional.  ISieither 
is  it  convenient.  It  is  used  elsewhere  not  as  the  sign 
of  qirantihj,  but  as  the  sign  of  accent ;  consequently, 
being  placed  over  a. letter,  and  being  interpreted  accord- 
ing to  its  natural  meaning,  it  gives  the  idea,  not  that  the 
syllable  is  long,  but  that  it  is  emphatic  or  accented.  Its 
use  as  a  sign  of  quantity  then,  would  be  an  ortho- 
graphical expedient,  or  an  inconvenient  conventional  mode 
of  spelling. 

The  English  language  aboimds  in  orthographical 
expedients ;  the  modes  of  expressing  the  quantity  of  the 
vowels  being  particularly  numerous.  To  begin  with 
these  : — 

The  reduplication  of  a  vowel  where  there  is  but  one 
syllable  (as  in  feet,  cool),  is  an  orthographical  expedient. 
It  merely  means  that  the  syllabic  is  long  (or  inde- 
pendent). 

The  juxtaposition  of  two  different  vowels,  where 
there    is   but   one    syllable   (as  in  plain,  moan),  is   an 


ORTHOGRArjIV.  115 

ortliograpbical  c.xpcdicut.  It  generally  means  the  same 
as  the  reduplication  of  a  vowel,  i.  c,  that  the  syllabic  is 
lon;j;  (independent). 

The  addition  of  the  e  mute,  as  in  j)Ianc,  whale  (^vhat- 
ever  may  have  been  its  origin),  is,  at  present,  but  an  or- 
thographical expedient.  It  denotes  the  lengthening  of  the 
syllable. 

The  reduplication  of  the  consonant  after  a  vowel,  as  in 
spotted,  torrent,  is  in  most  cases  but  an  orthographical  ex- 
pedient. It  merely  denotes  that  the  preceding  vowel  is 
short  (dependent). 

The  use  of  j)]i  for  /  in  Philip,  is  an  orthographical 
expedient,  founded  upon  etymological  reasons. 

The  use  of  th  for  the  simple  sound  of  the  first  conso- 
nant in  thin  and  thine,  is  an  orthographical  expedient. 
The  combination  must  be  dealt  wdth  as  a  single  letter. 

Caution. — The  letter  x  and  q  are  not  orthographical 
expedients.  They  are  orthographical  coinpcndiunis,  r  •= 
ks,  and  q  =  kw. 


liO  HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

HISTORICAL     .SKETCH     OF     THE     EXGLISII     ALPHABET 

§  IGO.  The  preceding  chapter  lias  exliiblted  tlie  theory 
of  a  full  and  perfect  alphabet ;  it  has  shown  how  far  the 
English  alphabet  falls  short  of  such  a  standard ;  and, 
above  all,  it  has  exhibited  some  of  the  conventional  modes 
of  spelling  Tvhich  the  insufficiency  of  alphabets,  combined 
with  other  causes,  has  engendered.  The  present  chapter 
gives  a  history  of  our  alphabet,  whereby  many  of  its 
defects  are  accounted  for.  These  defects,  it  may  be 
said,  once  for  all.  the  English  alphabet  shares  with  those 
of  the  rest  of  the  world ;  although,  with  the  doubtful  ex- 
ception of  the  French,  it  possesses  them  in  a  higher  de- 
gree than  any, 

With  few,  if  any  exceptions,  all  the  modes  of  writing 
ill  the  icorld  originate^  directly  or  indirectly,  from  the 
Phoenician. 

At  a  certain  period  the  alphabet  of  Palestine,  Phoem- 
cia,  and  the  neighboring  languages  of  the  Semitic  tribes, 
consisted  of  twenty-two  separate  and  distinct  letters. 

Now  the  chances  arc,  that,  let  a  language  possess  as 
few  elementary  articulate  sounds  as  possible,  an  alphabet 
of  only  tu:enty-two  letters  will  be  insufficient. 

Hence  it  may  safely  be  asserted,  that  the  original 
Semitic  alphabet  was  insiifjicicnt  for  even  the  Semitic  lan- 
guages. 

J  IGl.  In   this   state   it   was    imported   into    Greece. 


Of   ENGLlSn   ALl'IIABET. 


117 


NoAV,  as  it  rarely  happens  tliat  any  t^yo  langua<Tes  have 
precisely  the  same  elementary  articulate  sounds,  so  it 
rarely  happens  that  an  alphabet  can  he  transplanted  from 
one  tongue  to  another,  and  he  found  to  suit.  When  such 
is  the  case,  alterations  are  required.  The  extent  to  ^vhich 
these  alterations  arc  made  at  all,  or  (if  made)  made  on  a 
right  principle  varies  with  different  languages.  Some 
adapt  an  introduced  alphabet  well :  others  badly. 

Of  the  twenty-two  Phoenician  letters  the  Greeks  took 
but  tiDcnty-onc.  The  eighteenth  letter,  tsadi  :i,  was 
never  imported  into  Europe. 

Compared  with  the  Semitic,  the  Old  Greek  alphabet 
ran  thus  : — 


Jlcbrctv. 

Greek. 

Hehrc 

w.       Greek. 

1. 

£( 

A. 

13. 

>a 

M. 

2. 

n 

B. 

14. 

3 

N. 

3. 

a 

r. 

15. 

D 

2? 

4. 

T 

A. 

IG. 

5 

O. 

6. 

n 

E. 

17. 

G 

n. 

6. 

1 

Digamma. 

18. 

r 

— 

7. 

t 

Z. 

A  letter  called 

8. 

H. 

19. 

P 

koppa,   afterwards 

9. 

t) 

0. 

ejected. 

10. 

I. 

20. 

1 

P. 

11. 

s 

K. 

21. 

a 

M    afterwards    J  ? 

12, 

b 

A. 

22. 

n 

T. 

The  nainci  of  the  letters  were  as  follows  : 


Hebrew.  Greek. 

1.  Aleph     ....     Alj^lia. 

2.  Eeth Bajta. 

3.  Gimel     ....     Gamma. 

4.  Dalcth     ....  Delta. 

5.  He E,  pslhn. 

6.  Vaw Digamma. 


Hebrew. 

Greek, 

7. 

Zaya    .     . 

.    Zseta, 

8. 

Heth.     . 

.     .  Ilceta. 

9. 

Teth     .    . 

.     Thffita. 

10. 

Yod   .     . 

.    .  It*)ta. 

11. 

Iv.iph    .     . 

.    Kappa. 

12. 

Lamed    . 

.     .  Lambda. 

18 

HISTORICAL    SKETCn. 

Tl  threw. 

Grcclc. 

Hebrew. 

Grah 

13.    Mem     . 

.  :mu. 

18.    Tsadi 

U.     Nun   .     . 

.  Nu. 

19.     Kof    . 

.  Koppa,  ylrt7/a/c 

15.     Siuncdi 

.     Sigiua  ? 

20.     Resb 

.     Ilho. 

16.     Ayn  .     . 

.  0. 

21.     Sin      . 

.  San,  Doric. 

17.     Pi.    .     . 

.     PhL 

22.     Tau  . 

.    Taa 

Tlic  alphabet  of  PLocnicia  and  Palestine  being  adapted 
to  the  language  of  Greece,  the  first  change  took  place  in 
the  manner  of  writing.  The  Phoenicians  wrote  from  right 
to  left ;  the  Greeks  from  left  to  right.  Besides  this,  the 
follo^Ying  princijiles  were  recognised ; — 

a.  Letters  for  which  there  was  no  use  Avere  left  behind. 
This  was  the  case,  as  seen  above,  with  the  eighteenth 
letter,  tsadi. 

h.  Letters  expressive  of  sounds  for  which  there  was  no 
precise  equivalent  in  Greek,  were  used  Avith  other  powers. 
This  was  the  case  with  letters  5,  8,  16,  and  probably  Avith 
some  others. 

c.  Letters  of  Avhich  the  original  sound,  in  the  course 
of  time,  became  changed,  were  allowed,  as  it  Avere,  to  drop 
out  of  the  alphabet.     This  was  the  case  with  6  and  19. 

d.  For  such  simple  single  elementary  articulate  sounds 
as  there  Avas  no  sign  or  letter  representant,  ncAv  signs,  or 
letters,  Avere  invented.  This  principle  gave  to  the  Greek 
alphabet  the  new  signs  ^,  ;)^^,  u,  «. 

e.  The  ncAV  signs  Avere  not  mere  modifications  of  the 
older  ones,  but  totally  neAV  letters. 

All  this  was  correct  in  principle ;  and  the  conse- 
quence is,  that  the  Greek  alphabet,  although  not  originally 
meant  to  express  a  European  tongue  at  all,  expresses  the 
Greek  language  Avell. 

§  162.  But  it  Avas  not  from  the  Greek  that  our  own 
alphabet  Avas  immediately  derived ;  although  ultimately 


OF   ENGLISH   ALPHABET.  119 

it  is  refci-ablc  to  the  same  source  as  the  Greek,  viz.,  the 
Phoenician. 

It  -was  the  JRo/nan  alphabet  which  served  as  the  basis 
to  the  English. 

And  it  is  in  the  changes  Avhich  the  Phoenician  alphabet 
nnderAvent  in  being  accommodated  to  the  Latin  lanmiaire 
that  we  must  investigate  the  chief  peculiarities  of  the 
present  alphabet  and  orthography  of  Great  Britain  and 
America. 

Now  respecting  the  Roman  alphabet,  we  must  remem- 
ber that  it  was  not  taken  directly  from  the  Phoenician ;  in 
this  important  point  differing  from  the  Greek. 

Nor  yet  was  it  taken,  in  the  first  i7istancc,  from  the 
Greek. 

It  had  a  double  origin. 

The  operation  of  the  principles  indicated  in  §  IGl  was 
a  work  of  the  time ;  and  hence  the  older  and  more  unmod- 
ified Greek  alphabet  approached  in  character  its  Phoeni- 
cian prototype  much  more  than  the  later,  or  modified. 
As  may  be  seen,  by  comparing  the  previous  alphabets 
with  the  common  alphabets  of  the  Greek  Grammar,  the 
letters  6  and  19  occur  in  the  earlier,  whilst  they  are 
missing  in  the  later,  modes  of  writing.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  old  alphabet  has  no  such  signs  as  0,  ;^,  v,  u>,  n^, 
and  f. 

Such  being  the  case,  it  is  easy  to  imagine  what  would 
be  the  respective  conditions  of  two  Italian  languages 
whifh  borrowed  those  alphabets,  the  one  from  the  earlier, 
the  other  from  the  later  Greek.  The  former  would  con- 
tain the  equivalents  to  vma  (G),  and  kof  (19) ;  but  be  des- 
titute of  (f),  %,  &c. :  whereas  the  latter  would  have  (/>,  Xj 
d'c.  l)ut  be  without  either  raw  or  /:of. 

]Much  the  same  would   be   the  case  with  anv  sinirlo 


120 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH. 


Italian  language  -wlucli  took  as  its  basis  the  earlier,  but 
adopted,  during  tlie  course  of  time,  modifications  from  the 
later  Greek.  It  would  exhibit  -within  itself  characters 
common  to  the  twc  stages. 

This,  or  something  very  like  it,  was  the  case  -with  llo- 
man.  For  the  first  two  or  three  centuries  the  alphabet 
was  Etruscan ;  Etruscan  derived  directhj  from  the  Greek, 
and  from  the  old  Greek. 

Afterwards,  however,  the  later  Greek  alphabet  had  its 
influence,  and  the  additional  letters  which  it  contained 
were  more  or  less  incorporated ;  and  that  without  effect- 
ing the  ejection  of  any  earlier  ones. 

§  1G3.  With  these  preliminaries  we  may  investigate 
the  details  of  the  Roman  alphabet,  when  we  shall  find 
that  many  of  them  stand  in  remarkable  contrast  with 
those  of  Greece  and  Phoenicia.  At  the  same  time  where 
^hey  differ  with  them,  they  agree  with  the  English. 


Order.        Roman.       Eufjlish.         Greelc. 


1. 

2. 

3. 

4. 

5. 

6, 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 
16, 

\n. 

18. 


A 
B 

c 

D 
E 
F 

Or 

H 

I 
J 

L 

M 
N 
O 
P 


A 

B 

C 

D 

E 

F 

G 

H 

I 

J 

K 

L 

M 

O 
P 


Alplia 

Basta 

Gamma 

Delta 

Epsilon 

Digamma 


Hffita 

Iota 

Iota 

Kappa 

Lam  (la 

Mil 

Nu 

0  micron 

Pi 

Koppa 

Rho 


Hebrew. 
Alcplt 
Beth. 
Gimel. 
Daleth. 
He. 
Vaw. 

Heth. 

lod. 

led. 

Kaf 

Lamed. 

Mem. 

Nun. 

Ayn. 

Plii. 

Kof. 

Resb. 


OF   EXGLlSil   ALPHABET.  121 

Ordtr.  RoiiHui.  English  Greek.  Ilclrao. 

I'J  8  S  Sar'.  Siu. 


20. 

T 

T 

Tan 

Tau. 

21. 

U 

U 

Upsiloi. 

— 

22. 

V 

V 

Upsilou 

— 

OJJ 

w 

Upsilou 

— 

24. 

X 

X 

Xi 

Sanicck* 

25. 

Y 

Y 

Up.sUua 

— 

2C. 

Z 

z 

Zreta 

Zaiii. 

§  1G4.  The  difiVrcnccs  of  this  tabic  arc  referable  to 
one  of  tlK)  fullowing  four  heads : — a.  Ejection,  h.  Ad- 
dition,    c.  Change  of  power,     d.  Change  of  order. 

a.  Ejection. — In  the  first  instance,  the  Italians  ejected 
as  unnecessary,  letters  7.t  9,  and  11  :  zayn  {zccfa),  tdh 
{iJidta).  and  kaf  {kappa).  Either  the  sounds  which  they 
expressed  were  wanting  in  their  language ;  or  else  they 
were  expressed  by  some  other  letter.  The  former  was 
'n-obably  the  case  with  7  and  9,  zcBta  and  thoita,  the  latter 
with  "11,  kappa. 

h.  Addition. — Out  of  the  Greek  iota,  two  ;  out  of  the 
Greek  iipsilon,  four  modifications  have  been  evolved  ;  viz., 
i  and  J  out  of  i,  and  7(,  v,  ii\  i/,  out  of  i;. 

c.  Change  of  power. — Letter  3,  in  Greek  and  Hebrew 
had  the  sound  of  the  g  in  gun;  in  Latin  that  of  k. 
The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the  structure  of  the  Etruscan 
language.  In  that  tongue  the  flat  sounds  Vere  remark- 
ably deficient ;  indeed,  it  is  probable,  that  that  of  g 
was  wanting.  Its  sharp  equivalent,  however,  the  sound 
of  k,  was  by  no  means  wanting  ;  and  the  Greek  gamma 
was  used  to  denote  it.  This  made  the  equivalent  to  k, 
the  third  letter  of  the  alphabet,  as  early  as  the  time  of  the 
£truscans. 

But  the  Romans  had  both  sounds,  the  flat  as  well  as 

*  As  a  name,  Sigma=Samech. 
f  Of  the  Ilebrcw  and  Greek  tables. 

7 


122  niSTUKICAL   SKETCH 

the  sharp,  g  as  well  as  /.:.  IIow  did  tlicy  express  tlicml 
Up  to  the  second  Punic  War  they  made  the  rounded 
form  of  the  Greek  P,  out  of  -which  the  letter  C  has  arisen, 
do  double  Avork,  and  signify  k  and  g  equally,  just  as 
in  the  present  English  th  is  sounded  as  the  Greek  ^,* 
and  as  dh  /t  in  proof  whereof  we  have  in  the  Duillian 

column,  MACESTRATOS  =  MAGISTRATOS,  and  CARTHACI- 
NIENSES  =  C  ARTH  AGINIENSES. 

Thus  much  concerning  the  power  and  places  of  the 
Latin  c,  as  opposed  to  the  Greek  7.  But  this  is  not  all. 
The  use  of  gmnma,  with  the  power  of  /j,  made  kappa 
superfluous,  and  accounts  for  its  ejection  in  the  Etruscan 
alphabet ;  a  fact  already  noticed. 

Furthermore,  an  addition  to  the  Etruscan  alphabet 
was  required  by  the  existence  of  the  sound  of  g,  in  Latin, 
as  soon  as  the  inconvenience  of  using  c  with  a  double 
power  became  manifest.  What  took  place  then  ?  Even 
this.  The  third  letter  was  modified  in  form,  or  became  a 
new  letter,  c  being  altered  into  g  ;  and  the  new  letter  took 
its  place  in  the  alphabet. 

Where  was  this?  As  the  seventh  letter  between/ 
{(ligamma)  and  h  (hceta). 

Why  ?  Because  it  was  there  where  there  was  a 
vacancy,  and  Avhere  it  replaced  the  Greek  zcBta,  or  the 
Hebrew  zaijii,  a  letter  which,  at  that  time,  was  not 
wanted  in  Latin. 

d.  Change  of  order. — As  far  as  the  letters  c  and  o' 
are  concerned,  this  has  been  explained ;  and  it  has  been 
shown  that  change  of  order  and  change  of  power  are 
sometimes  very  closely  connected.  All  that  now  need 
be  added  is,  that  those  letters  which  were  last  introduced 
from  the  Greek  into  the  Roman  alphabet,  were  placed  at 
the  end. 

*  lu  thin.  \  111  thine. 


OF   ENGLISH   ALi'UABET.  123 

This  is  Avliy  u,  v,  w,  and  1/  come  after  t — the  last 
letter  of  the  original  Phoenician,  and  also  of  the  older 
Greek. 

This,  too,  is  the  reason  for  z  coming  last  of  all.  It 
was  restored  for  the  purpose  of  spelling  Greek  words. 
But  as  its  original  place  had  been  filled  up  by  g;  it  Avas 
tacked  on  as  an  appendage,  rather  than  incorporated  as  an 
clement. 

Xin  power,  coincided  with  the  Greek  .vl ;  in  y^Zace, 
with  the  Greek  khi.  Its  position  seems  to  liave  deter- 
mined its  form,  which  is  certainly  that  of  X  rather  than 
of  H.  The  full  investigation  of  this  is  too  lengthy  for  the 
present  work. 

§  165.  It  should  be  observed,  that,  in  the  Latin,  the 
letters  have  no  longer  any  names  (like  heth,  hccta),  except 
such  as  are  derived  from  their  powers  {be,  ce). 

§  166.  The  principles  which  determined  the  form  of 
the  Eoman  alphabet  were,  upon  the  whole,  correct ;  and, 
hence,  the  Roman  alphabet,  although  not  originally  meant 
to  express  an  Italian  tongue  at  all,  expressed  the  language 
to  which  it  was  applied  tolerably. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  were  both  omissions  and 
alterations  which  have  had  a  detrimental  effect  upon  the 
orthography  of  those  other  numerous  tongues  to  which 
Latin  has  supplied  the  alphabet.     Thus — 

a.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret,  that  the  differences  which 
the  Greeks  drew  between  the  so-called  lorrg  and  shori  c 
and  0,  was  neglected  by  the  Latins  ;  in  other  words,  that 
&)  was  omitted  entirely,  and  ?;  changed  in  power.  Had 
this  been  the  case,  all  the  orthographical  expedients  by 
which  we  have  to  express  the  difference  between  the  0  in 
not,  and  the  0  in  note,  would  have  been  prevented — not, 
■note,  moat — bed,  bead,  heel,  glede,  vfcc. 

b.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret,  that  such  an  unnecessary 


121  HiriTomcAL  SKErcri 

compcndliu/i  as  q  =  cu,  or  cio,  should  have  been  retained 
from  the  old  Greek  alphabet ;  and,  still  more  so,  that 
the  equally  superfluous  x  =  cs,  or  /:s,  should  have  been  re- 
admitted. 

c.  It  is  a  matter  of  regret,  that  the  Greek  ^  was  not 
treated  like  the  Greek  ^.  Neither  -were  -wanted  at  first ; 
both  afterwards.  The  manner,  however,  of  their  sub- 
sequent introduction  was  different.  Zmta  came  in  as  a 
simple  single  letter,  significant  of  a  simple  single  sound. 
TIicBta,  on  the  contrary,  although  exj^ressive  of  an  equally 
simple  sound,  became  ih.  This  was  a  combination  rather 
than  a  letter  ;  and  the  error  which  it  engendered  was 
great. 

It  suggested  the  idea,  that  a  simple  sound  was  a  com- 
pound one — which  was  wrong. 

It  further  suggested  the  idea,  that  the  sound  of  ^ 
differed  from  that  of  t,  by  the  addition  of  h — which  was 
wrong  also. 

k  167.  The  Greek  language  had  a  system  of  sounds 
different  from  the  Phoenician  ;  and  the  alphabet  required 
modifying  accordingly. 

The  Roman  language  had  a  system  of  sounds  different 
from  the  Greek  and  the  alphabet  required  modifying 
accordingly. 

This  leads  us  to  certain  questions  concerning  the 
Anglo-Saxon.  Had  it  a  system  of  sounds  different  from 
the  Roman  ?  If  so,  what  modifications  did  the  alphabet 
require  ?  Were  such  modifications  effected  ?  If  so,  how  ? 
Sufficiently  or  insufficiently  ?  The  answers  are  unsatis- 
factory. 

§  168.  The  Anglo-Saxon  had,  even  in  its  earliest 
stage,  the  following  somids,  for  which  the  Latin  alphabet 
had  no  equivalent  signs  or  letters — 

1.  The  sound  of  the  th  in  thin. 


OF    ENGLISH    ALl'lIABET.  125 

2.  The  sound  of  the  ih  in  tJiinc. 

It  had  certainly  these  :  probahly  others. 

§  1G9.  Expressive  of  tliese,  two  new  signs  were  intro- 
duced, viz.,  y  =  ih  in  thin,  nnd  ^  ^Ih  in  tJiinc. 

TF,  also  evolved  out  of  v,  was  cither  an  original  ini 
provement  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  orthographists,  or  a  mode 
of  expression  borrowed  from  one  of  the  allied  languages 
of  the  Continent,  rrobahly  the  latter  was  the  case ; 
since  we  find  the  following  passage  in  the  Latin  dedication 
of  Otfrid's  "  Krist :" — "  llujus  cnim  lingua3  barbaries, 
ut  est  inculca  et  indisciplinabilis,  atque  insueta  capi  regu- 
lari  frcno  grammaticai  artis,  sic  etiam  in  multis  dictis 
scriptu  est  difficilis  propter  litcrarura  aut  congeriem,  aut 
incognitam  sonoritatem.  Nam  intcrdum  tria  u  ii  u  ut 
puto  quasrit  in  sono ;  priores  duo  consonantcs,  ut  rnihi 
videtur,  tertium  vocali  sono  manente." 

This  was,  as  far  as  it  went,  correct,  so  that  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  alphabet,  although  not  originally  meant  to  express 
a  Gothic  tongue  at  all,  answered  the  purpose  to  which  it 
wtis  applied  tolerably. 

§  170.  Change,  however,  went  on ;  and  the  ortho- 
graphy which  suited  the  earlier  Anglo-Saxon  would  not 
suit  the  later  ;  at  any  rate,  it  would  not"  suit  the  language 
•which  had  become  or  was  becoming,  English  ;  wherein 
tlie  sounds  for  which  the  Latin  alphabet  had  no  equivalent 
signs  inci'ease.     Thus  there  is  at  present — 

1.  The  sound  of  the  sh  in  shine. 

2.  The  sound  of  the  z  in  azure. 

How  are  these  to  be  expressed  ?  Tlio  rule  ba-s  hitherto 
becMi  to  denote  simple  single  sounds,  by  simple  single 
signs,  and  where  such  signs  have  no  existence  alr-^idy,  to 
originate  new  ones. 

To  combine  existing  letters,  rather  than  to  coin  a  new 
one,  has  only  been  done  rarely.     The  Iiatin  substitution 


126  HISTORICAL   SKETCH. 

of  the  combination  th  for  the  simple  single  ^,  Avas  ex- 
ceptionable. It  was  a  precedent,  however,  which  now 
begins  to  be  followed  generally. 

§  171.  It  is  this  precedent  which  accounts  for  the 
absence  of  any  letter  in  English,  expressive  of  cither  of 
the  sounds  in  question. 

§  172.  Furthermore,  our  alphabet  has  not  only  not 
increased  in  proportion  to  our  sound-system,  but  it  has 
decreased.  The  Anglo-Saxon  }» =  the  th  in  thin,  and  ^ 
=  the  th  in  thine,  have  become  obsolete  ;  and  a  difference 
in  pronunciation,  which  our  ancestors  expressed,  we  over- 
look. 

The  same  precedent  is  at  tlic  bottom  of  this  ;  a  fact 
which  leads  us  to — 

§  173.  TJie  Anglo-Norman  alphabet. — The  Anglo- 
Saxon  language  was  Gothic  ;  the  alphabet,  Roman. 

The  Anglo-Norman  language  was  Rotnan  ;  the  alpha- 
bet. Roman  also. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  took  his  speech  from  one  source ; 
his  writing  from  another. 

The  Anglo-Norman  took  both  from  the  same. 

In  adapting  a  Latin  alphabet  to  a  Gothic  language, 
the  Anglo-Saxon  allowed  himself  more  latitude  than  the 
Ano-lo-Norman.  We  have  seen  that  the  new  siiins  }'  and 
^  Avere  Anglo-Saxon. 

Now  the  sounds  which  these  letters  represent  did  not 
occur  in  the  Norman-French,  consequently  the  Norman- 
French  alphabet  neither  had  nor  needed  to  have  signs  to 
express  them ;  until  after  the  battle  of  Hastings,  %chen 
it  became  the  Anglo-Norman  of  England. 

Then,  the  case  became  altered.  The  English  lan- 
guage influenced  the  Norman  orthography,  and  the 
Norman  orthography  the  English  language ;  and  the 
result  was,  that  the  simple  single  correct  and  distinctive 


OF   ENGLISH   ALPIIAKET.  127 

signs  of  tlio  Anglo-Saxon  ali^liabct,  became  replaced  by 
the  incorrect  and  indistinct  combination  iJi. 

Tliis  "ft'as  a  loss,  both  in  tlie  'way  of  theoretical  cor- 
rectness and  perspicuit}'. 

Such  is  the  general  view  of  the  additions,  ejections, 
changes  of  power,  and  changes  of  order  in  the  English 
alphabet.  The  extent,  hoAvever,  to  which  an  alphabet 
is  faulty,  is  no  measure  of  the  extent  to  which  an  ortho- 
graphy is  Hiulty ;  since  an  insufficient  alphaljet  may,  by 
consistency  in  its  application,  be  more  useful  than  a  full 
and  perfect  alphabet  unsteadily  applied, 

§  174.  One  of  our  orthographical  expedients,  viz.,  the 
reduplication  of  the  consonant  following,  to  express  the 
shortness  (dependence)  of  the  preceding  vowel,  is  as  old 
as  the  classical  languages:  icrra,  ^uXaa-aa.  Neverthe- 
less, the  following  extract  from  the  "  Ormulum  "  (^\Titten 
in  the  thirteenth  century)  is  the  fullest  recognition  of  the 
practice  that  I  have  met  with. 

And  whase  wile.au  sluill  Jiia  boc, 

Efft  o]7err  sijie  writeuu, 
Iliiiim  bidde  ice  Jiatt  liett  write  rilibt, 

Swa  sum  J)iss  boc  bimin  taecbe]5]7 ; 
All  |)werrt  utt  afFterr  ])att  itt  iss 

Opp  ■  Jiiss  firrste  bisne, 
Wi]?]i  all  swilc  rime  als  lier  iss  sett, 

"\Vi}i]7  alse  fele  wordess  : 
And  tatt  be  loke  well  J^att  be 

Aii  boc-stajf  write  tw/r/(/ess,'-^ 
Egg\vba;r  J^icr  itt  iippo  ]iiss  boc 

Iss  writenn  o  ]iatt  wise : 
Loke  be  well  Jiatt  bett  write  swa, 

Forr  be  ne  niagg  nobt  elless, 
Ou  Engbssb  writenn  ribbt  te  M'ord, 

Jiatt  wite  he  well  to  so]ie. 


*  "Write  one  letter  twice. 


128 


mSTORICAL   SKETCn 


§  175.  TJie  order  of  1 1 ic  ulpliahct. — In  the  history  of 
our  nljihubet,  wc  have  had  the  history  of  certain  chan^i^ca 
in  the  arrangement,  as  "\ivell  as  of  the  changes  in  the 
number  and  power  of  its  letters.  The  following  question 
now  presents  itself:  viz.,  Is  there  in  the  order  of  the 
letters  any  natural  arrangement,  or  is  the  original  as 
well  as  the  present  succession  of  letters  arbitrary  and 
accidental  ?  The  following  fticts  suggest  an  answer  in  the 
affirmative. 

The  order  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet  is  as  follows :-- 


Name. 

Sound. 

Kaine, 

Sound. 

1. 

Aleph  . 

Either  a  vowel 
or  a  breathing. 

12. 

Lamed  .  . 

.  L. 

13. 

Metn  .  .  . 

.  M. 

2. 

Beth  .  . 

.  15. 

14. 

Nun   .  . 

.  N. 

3. 

Giincl   . 

.  G,  .IS  in  fjun. 

15. 

Samcch    . 

.  a  variety  of  S. 

4. 
5. 

Daleth . 
He   .  .  . 

\  Eitlier  a  vowel 
i  or  an  asjnrate. 

IG. 
17. 

Ayn   .  .  . 
Fe  .      .  . 

^  Either  a  vowel 
■    lor—? 
.  P. 

C. 

Vavi  .  . 

.  Y. 

18. 

Tsadi  .  .  . 

.  TS. 

7. 

Zayn  .  . 
Khcth   . 

.  Z. 

19. 

Kof.  .  .  . 

.  a  variety  of  K. 

8. 

.  a  variety  of  K. 

20. 

Rcsh  .  .  . 

.  R. 

9. 

Tcth   .  . 

.  a  variety  of  T. 

21. 

Sen  .  .  .  . 

.  S. 

10. 

Yod    .  . 

.  I. 

22. 

Tau    .  .  . 

.  T. 

11. 

Caph.  .  . 

.  K. 

Let  both,  vaw,  and  2)e  {b,  v,  p)  constitute  a  scries 
called  series  P.  Let  g-lmel,  Icheth,  and  kof  {g,  kh,  /v') 
constitute  a  series  called  series  K.  Let  daleth,  tethy  and 
tail,  {d,  t\  t)  constitute  a  series  called  series  T.  Let 
aleph,  he,  and  ayn  constitute  a  series  called  the  vowel 
series.     Let  the  first  four  letters  be  taken  in  their  order. 


1.  Ahjih of  the  vowel  series. 

2.  Beth of  series  P. 

3.  Gtmcl of  scries  K. 

4.  Balcth of  series  T. 


OF   EXGLISK   ALPJJAEET.  129 

Herein  the  consoiuint  of  series  B  comes  next  to  the 
letter  of  the  vowel  series ;  that  of  series  K  folloAvs ;  and 
in  the  last  place,  comes  the  letter  of  series  T.  After  this 
the  order  changes ;  daleth  being  followed  by  he  of  th^ 
vowel  series. 

5.  He of  the  vowel  serica. 

G.    Vaw of  series  1'. 

7.  Zayn 

8.  Klieth of  series  K. 

9.  Tcth of  series  T. 

In  this  second  sequence  the  relative  positions  of  v,  /:h, 
and  t\  are  the  same  in  respect  to  each  other,  and  the 
same  in  respect  to  the  vowel  series.  The  sequence  itself 
is  broken  by  the  letter  zayn,  but  it  is  remarkable  that  the 
principle  of  the  sequence  is  the  same.  Series  P  follows 
tlie  vowel,  and  series  T  is  farthest  from  it.  After  this  the 
system  becomes  but  fragmentary.  Still,  even  now,  pe,  of 
series  P,  follows  ai/n;  tan,  of  series  T,  is  farthest  from 
it,  and  kof,  of  series  K,  is  interm.ediate. 

If  this  be  the  case,  and,  if  the  letters,  so  to  say,  cir- 
culate, the  alterations  made  in  their  order  during  the 
transfer  of  their  alphabet  from  Greece  to  Rome,  have 
had  the  unsatisfactory  effect  of  concealing  an  interesting 
arrangement,  and  of  converting  a  real,  though  some- 
what complex  regularity,  into  apparent  hazard  and  dis- 
order. 


130  QUESTIONS. 


QUESTIO^^S. 

1.  Expliiiu  the  toiins  sharp,  explosive,  (rue  aspirate,  apparent  aspirate, 
broad,  dependent. 

2.  Exhibit  the  tlifForence  between  the  quantity  of  Ki//lablcs  and  the. 
quantity  ol"  vowels. 

3.  Accentuate  tlie  following  words, — attribute  (adjective),  snrvetj 
(verb),  A^tgitst  {the  month). 

4.  Under  M'liat  conditions  is  the  sound  of  consonants  doubled  ? 

5.  Exhibit,  in  a  tabular  form,  the  relations  of  the  a)  mutes,  b)  the 
vowels,  underlining  those  which  do  not  occur  in  English. 

6.  What  is  the  power  of  jih  hi  I'hilip?  \\\\\\iixxhiipha-ard?  Illus- 
tiate  the  diirerence  fully. 

7.  Investigate  the  changes  by  which  tlie  words  picture,  nature, 
derived  from  the  Latin  pictura  and  natura,  are  sounded  pictshur  and 
natshur. 

8.  How  do  you  sound  the  combination  upd?     Why? 

9.  In  what  points  is  the  English  alphabet  insujicienl,  redundant,  and 
inconsistent  ? 

10.  Why  is  s  (sccta),  which  is  tlic  sixth  letter  in  the  Greek,  the  last  iu 
Uie  English  aljjhabet  I 


PART   IV. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   I. 

ON  THE  ruOVIXCE  OF  ETYMOLOGY. 

§  175.  The  word  etymology,  derived  from  the  Greek, 
in  the  current  language  of  scholars  and  grammarians,  has 
a  double  meaning.  At  times  it  is  used  in  a  wide,  and  at 
times  in  a  restricted  sense. 

If  in  the  English  lano;uage  we  take  such  a  word  as 
fathers,  we  are  enabled  to  divide  it  into  two  parts ;  in 
other  words,  to  reduce  it  into  two  elements.  By  com- 
paring, it  with  the  word  fatlier,  we  see  that  the  5  is 
neither  part  nor  parcel  of  the  original  word.  Hence 
the  word  is  capable  of  being  analysed ;  father  being 
the  original  primitive  word,  and  5  the  secondary  super- 
srdded  termination.  Erom  the  word  father,  the  word 
fathers  is  derived.,  or  (changing  the  expression)  deduced, 
or  descended.  What  has  been  said  of  the  word  fathers 
may  also  be  said  of  fatherly,  fatherlike,  fatherless,  &c. 
Now,  from  the  word  father,  all  these  words  {fathers, 
fatherly,  fatherUke,  and' fatherless)  differ  in  form  and  in 
meaning.     To  become  such  a  word  as  fathers,  &c.,  tho 


132  rUOVlNCE  OF  etyaiology. 

Avord  father  is  changed.     Of  changes  of  this  sort,  it  is 
the  province  of  etymology  to  take  cognizance. 

§  177.  Compared  with  the  form  fafhers,  the  -word 
father  is  the  older  form  of  the  t^vo.  The  word  father 
is  a  word  current  in  this  the  nineteenth  century.  The 
same  word  is  found  much  earlier,  under  different  forms, 
and  in  different  languages.  Thus,  in  the  Latin  Ian 
guage,  the  form  was  pater;  in  Greek,  frarrjp.  Now, 
Viiih.  father  and  fathers,  the  change  takes  place  within  the 
same  language,  whilst  the  change  that  takes  j^lacc  hctwccn 
pater  and  father  takes  place  within  different  languages. 
Of  changes  of  this  latter  kind  it  is,  also,  the  province  of 
etymology  to  take  cognizance. 

§  178.  In  its  widest  signification,  etymology  takes 
cognizance  (f  the  changes  of  the  form  of  ivords.  Hoav- 
evcr,  as  the  etymology  that  compares  the  forms  fathers 
and  father  is  different  from  the  etymology  that  compares 
fathcji  and  pater,  we  have,  of  etymology,  two  sorts : 
one  dealin<;;  with  tlie  changes  of  form  that  words  un- 
dergo  in  one  and  the  same  language  {father,  fathers),  the 
other  dealing  with  the  changes  that  words  undergo  in 
passing  from  one  language  to  another  {pater,  fatho ). 

The  first  of  these  sorts  may  be  called  etymology  in 
the  limited  sense  of  the  Avord,  or  the  etymology  of  the 
grammarian.  In  this  case  it  is  opposed  to  orthoepy, 
orthography,  syntax,  and  the  other  parts  of  grammar. 
This  is  the  etymology  of  the  ensuing  pages. 

The  second  may  be  called  etymology  in  tlic  wide 
sense  of  the  word,  historical  etymology,  or  comparative 
etymology. 

0  179.  It  must  be  again  repeated  that  the  two  sorts 
of  etymology  agree  in  one  point,  viz.,  in  taking  cog-* 
nizance  of  the  changes  of  forms  that  xcords  undergo, 
Whethcn-  the  chan2:c  arise  from   rrranunatical  reasons,  as 


ITwOVINOE   OF   ETYMOLOGY,  133 

faUivr^  fal/icrs,  or  iVom  ti  cliangc  of  language  taking 
place  in  tlie  lapse  of  time,  as  jjcitcr,  falhcr,  is  a  matter  of 
indifrerence. 

In  the  Latin  ;;a/c7',  and  in  the  English /c/Z/icv,  ^ve  have 
one  of  two  things,  either  two  words  descended  or  derived 
from  each  other,  or  two  words  descended  or  dcrivcvl  from 
a  common  original  source. 

In  fathers  wc  have  a  formation  deduced  from  the 
radical  word/aZ/ter. 

With  these  preliminaries  we  may  understand  Dr. 
Johnson's  explanation  of  the  Avord  etymology. 

"  Etymology,  7i.  s.  {clymologla^  Lat.)  eTUfj.o<i  {c/i/nios) 
true,  and  \6yo<;  {logos)  a  tvord. 

"  1.  The  descent  or  derivation  of  a  ivord  from  its 
original ;  the  deduction  of  formations  from  the  radical 
word  ;  the  analysis  of  compounds  into  ■primitives. 

"  2,  Tlie  part  of  grammar  which  delivers  the  injiec' 
fions  of  nouns  and  vcrbsJ' 


134  ON  GENDER. 


CHAPTER    II. 


ON    GENDITR. 


§  180.  How  far  is  tlicrc  such  a  thing  as  gender  in  tho 
English  language  ?  This  depends  upon  the  meaning  that 
we  attach  to  the  wcrd. 

In  the  Latin  language  Ave  have  the  words  taurus  = 
bull,  and  vacca  =  cow.  Here  the  natural  distinction  of 
sex  is  expressed  by  u'holly  different  words.  With  this 
Ave  have  corresponding  modes  of  expression  in  English : 
e. 


t'-J 

Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Bachelor 

Spinstei". 

Horse 

Mare. 

Boar 

Sow. 

Ram 

Ev.-e. 

Boy 

Girl. 

Sou 

Daughter. 

Brother 

Sister. 

Uncle 

Aunt 

Buck 

D(je. 

Fatlier 

Mother,  <tc. 

The  mode,  however,  of  expressing  different  sexes  by 
wholly  different  Avords  is  not  a  matter  of  gender.  The 
words  boy  and  girl  bear  no  etymological  relation  to  each 
other ;  neither  being  derived  from  the  other,  nor  in  any 
way  connected  with  it. 

§  181.  Neither  are  words  like  cock-sparrow,  man- 
servant, he-goat,  (fcc,  as  compared  with  hen-sparrow, 
Quaid-servant,  she-goat,  &c.,  specimens  of  gender.  Here 
a  difference  of  sex  is  indicated  by  the  addition  of  a  fresh 
term,  from  Avhich  is  formed  a  conipound  Avord. 

§  182.  In  the  Latin  Avords  genitrix  =^  a  inothcr,  nnd 


ON   GENDER. 


135 


genitor  --=  a  fatJier,  avc  have  a  nearer  approacli  to  gender. 
Here  the  difference  of  sex  is  expressed  hy  a  difference 
of  termination  ;  the  ■words  ,^cni7or  and  genitrix  Leinf^  in 
a  true  etymological  relation,  i.  e.,  cither  derived  from 
each  otlier,  or  from  some  common  source.  With  this 
•we  have,  in  English  corresponding  modes  of  expression : 
p..  g. 


Male. 

Female. 

3fale. 

Female. 

Actor 

Actress. 

I-ion 

Lioness. 

Arbiter 

Arbitress. 

Peer 

Peeress. 

Baron 

Baroness. 

Poet 

Poetess. 

Benefactor 

Benefactress. 

Sorcerer 

Sorceress. 

Count 

Countess. 

Songster 

Songstress. 

Duke 

Duchess. 

Tiger 

Tigress. 

§  183.  This,  however,  in  strict  grammatical  lan- 
guage, is  an  approach  to  gender  rather  than  gender 
itself;  the  difference  from  true  grammatical  gender  being 
as  follows : — 

Let  the  Latin  woi'ds  genilor  and  gcni/riv  he  de- 
clined : — 


<S'i>jf/.  A'cwn. 

Genitor 

Gen. 

Genitor-ts 

Bat. 

Genitor-i 

Ace. 

Genitor-«/i 

Voc. 

Genitor 

Plur.  Nom. 

Genitor-es 

Gen. 

Genitor-?«wt 

Bat. 

Geuitor-i6'( 

Ace. 

Gcnitor-cs 

Voc. 

Gcnitor-es 

Genitrix. 

Genitric-ts. 

Genitric-i. 

Gcnitric-em. 

Genitrix. 

Genitric-es. 

Genitric-Mm. 

Genitric-ziiw. 

Genitric-e.'i. 

Genitric-ffs. 


The  syllables  in  italics  arc  the  signs  of  the  cases  and 
numbers.  Now  these  signs  are  the  same  in  each  word, 
the  difference  of  meaning  (or  sex)  not  affecting  them. 

§  184.    Contrast,   however,   with   the   words   genitor 


136  ON   GENDER. 

and  ^L'nilri.v  the  wurJfi  domlna^a  fjilslrcs^;  and  do/fu 
nus  —  a  ui  aster. 

Sinj.  I\'oiii.  Domiii-a  Doimii-M«. 

6V';!,    Domiu-OB  Domin-t. 

Dat.    Domiu-rt!  Domiii-a 

Ace.    Domm-am  Dumin-MOT. 

Voc.    Domtiva  Domiii-e. 

I'lur.Noni.  Domiiwe  Domin-t. 

Gen.    Doiiiiu-a/-«)«  Domiri-o>-;«;7i. 

Dat.    Homm-ahns  Domia-is. 

Ace.    Domin-as  Domia-os. 

Voc.    Duiulu-tc  Domin-i. 

Here  the  letters  in  italics,  or  the  signs  of  the  cases 
and  numbers,  are  different;  the  diiference  beinji:  biousrht 
about  by  the  difference  of  gender.  Now  it  is  A'cry  evi- 
dent that,  if  gcmtri.v  be  a  specimen  of  gender,  doinina  is 
something  more. 

§  185.  It  may  be  laid  down  as  a  sort  of  definition, 
tliat  titer e  is  no  gender  xchcre  there  is  no  affection  of  the 
deden.sion :  consequently,  that,  althougli  we  have,  in 
English,  words  corresponding  to  genitri.v  and  genitor, 
Ave  have  no  true  genders  until  we  find  words  corresponding 
to  dominus  and  domina. 

§  186.  The  second  element  in  the  notion  of  gender, 
although  I  will  not  venture  to  call  it  an  essential  one,  is 
the  following: — In  the  words  dojnina  and  do7ninus, 
mistress  and  master,  there  is  a  natural  distinction  of  sex  : 
the  one  being  masculine,  or  male,  the  other  feminine,' or 
female.  In  the  words  sword  and  lance  there  is  no 
natural  distinction  of  sex.  Notwithstanding  this,  the 
word  hasta,  in  Latin,  is  as  nuich  of  the  feminine  gender 
as  domina.  whilst  gladius  —  a  sword  is,  like  dominus,  a 
masculine  noun.  From  this  we  see  that,  in  languages 
wherein  there  are  true  irenders,  a  fictitious  or  conven- 


ON   JENDEll.  137 

tional  sex  is  attributed  even  to  inanimate  objects ;  in 
other  words,  sc.v  is  a  natural  distinction,  gender  a  p;rauv 
matical  one. 

§  187.  In  §  185  it  is  written,  that  "  althou^-li  we 
luivc,  in  Eni^'lisb,  words  corresponding  to  genitrix  and 
gcnitor,  we  have  no  true  genders  until  we  find  toords 
corresponding  to  donilnus  and  doniina.'' — The  sentence 
was  intentionally  worded  wltli  caution.  Words  like 
domlnns  and  doniina,  that  is,  words  wliere  the  declen- 
sion is  affected  by  the  sex,  are  to  be  found  even  in 
English. 

The  pronoun  1dm,  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  English 
Jie,  as  compared  with  the  pronoun  her,  from  the  Anodo- 
Saxon  hco,  is  affected  in  its  declension  by  the  difference 
of  sex,  and  is  a  true,  though  fragmentary,  specimen  of 
gender.  The  same  is  the  case  Avith  the  form  his  as  com- 
pared with  Iter. 

The  pronoun  it  (originally  Jut),  as  compared  with  lie, 
is  a  specimen  of  gender. 

The  relative  what,  as  compared  with  the  masculine 
who,  is  a  specimen  of  gender. 

The  forms  it  (for  hil^  and  he  are  as  much  genders  as 
hoc  and  liic,  and  the  forms  lioc  and  Idc  arc  as  nnich  genders 
as  honum  and  honus. 

§  188.  The  formation  of  the  neuter  gender  by  the 
addition  of  -t,  in  words  like  wha-t,  i-t,  and  tha-t,  occurs 
in  other  languages.  The  -t  in  tha~t  is  the  -d  in  istu-d, 
Latin,  and  the  -t  in  ta-t,  Sanskrit. 

§  189.  In  the  Mocso-Gothic  and  Scandinavian,  the 
adjectives  form  the  neuters  in  -t,  in  Old  High  German  in 
'Z  (is),  and  in  Modern  German  in  -5  (derived  from  -z) — 
Mocso-Gothic,  hUnd-ata ;  Icel.,  blind-t ;  Old  High  Ger- 
man, ^:>Z/«^-e2r;  M.  G.  hlhid-es  =  ccBc-um. 

Caution. —  Which,  is  not  the  neuter  of  ivho. 


138  O:^    GENDER. 

§  190.  Just  as  there  arc  in  Englisli  fragments  of  a 
gentler  modifying  tlie  declension,  so  arc  there,  also, 
fragments  of  the  second  element  of  gender ;  viz.,  the 
attribution  of  sex  to  objects  naturally  destitute  of  it. 
The  Sim  in  his  glory,  the  moon  in  her  wane,  are  ex- 
amples of  this.  A  sailor  calls  his  ship  she.  A  husband- 
man, according  to  Mr.  Cobbctt,  does  the  same  "with  his 
plough  and  working  implements : — "  In  speaking  of  a 
ship  ■vve  say  she  and  Jier.  And  you  knoAV  that  our 
country-folks  in  Hampshire  call  almost  every  thing  he  or 
she.  It  is  curious  to  observe  that  country  labourers 
give  the  feminine  appellation  to  those  things  only  which 
are  more  closely  identified  with  themselves,  and  by  the 
qualities  or  conditions  of  which  their  own  efforts,  and 
their  character  as  workmen,  are  affected.  The  mower 
calls  his  scythe  a  she,  the  ploughman  calls  his  plough  a 
she  ;  but  a  prong,  or  a  shovel,  or  a  harrow,  which  passes 
promiscuously  from  hand  to  hand,  and  which  is  appro- 
priated to  no  particular  labourer,  is  called  a  Ae." — 
"  English  Grammar,"  Letter  v. 

§  191.  Now,  although  ]\Ir.  Cobbctt's  statements  may 
account  for  a  sailor  calling  his  ship  she,  they  will  not  ac- 
count for  the  custom  of  giving  to  the  sun  a  masculine, 
and  to  the  moon  a  feminine,  pronoun,  as  is  done  in  the 
expressions  quoted  in  the  last  section  ;  still  less  will  it 
account  for  the  circumstance  of  the  Germans  reversing 
the  gender,  and  making  the  sun  feminine,  and  the  inoon 
masculine. 

§  192.  Let  there  be  a  period  in  the  history  of  a  language 
wherein  the  sun  and  moon  arc  dealt  with,  not  as  inani- 
mate masses  of  matter,  but  as  animated  divinities.  Let 
there,  in  other  words,  be  a  time  when  dead  things  are 
personified,  and  when  there  is  a  mythology.  Let  an 
object  like  the  sun  be  deemed  a  male^  and  an  object  liko 


ox   GENDER.  139 

the  77100)},  a  fctnale,  deity,  "We  may  then  understand  the 
origin  of  certain  genders. 

The  Germans  say  the  siui  in  her  glory;  the  moon  in 
his  wane.  This  difference  between  the  usage  of  the  two 
languages,  like  so  many  others,  is  explained  by  the  influ- 
ence of  the  classical  languages  upon  the  English. — 
"  Mundilfori  had  two  children  ;  a  son,  Mdni  {Moon), 
and  a  daughter,  &ol  (/S'i/«)." — Such  is  an  extract  out  of 
an  Icelandic  mj'thological  work,  r/r.,  the  prose  Edda.  In 
the  classical  languages,  however,  Phoebus  and  Sol  are 
masculine,  and  Luna  and  Diana  feminine.  Hence  it  is 
that,  although  in  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old-Saxon  the  sun  is 
feminine,  it  is  in  English  masculine. 

Philosophi/,  char  it  I/,  (fcc,  or  the  names  of  abstract 
qualities  personified,  take  a  conventional  sex,  and  are  fem- 
inine from  their  being  feminine  in  Latin. 

As  in  all  these  words  there  is  no  change  of  form,  the 
consideration  of  them  is  a  point  of  rhetoric,  rather  than  of 
etymology. 

-^  §  193.  The  remainder  of  tliis  chapter  is  devoted  to 
miscellaneous  remarks  upon  the  true  and  apparent  gen- 
ders of  the  English  lan2;uafz;e. 

1.  With  the  false  genders  like  baron,  baroness,  it  is  a 
general  rule  that  the  feminine  form  is  derived  from  the 
masculine,  and  not  the  masculine  from  the  feminine ;  as 
peer,  peeress.  The  words  widower,  gander,  and  drake 
are  exceptions.  For  the  word  wizard,  from  witch,  see  the 
section  on  augmentative  forms. 

2.  The  termination  -ess,  in  which  so  large  a  portion  of 
our  feminine  substantives  terminate,  is  not  of  Saxon  but 
of  classical  origin,  being  derived  from  the  termuiation  -ix, 
genitrix. 

3.  The  words  shepherdess,  huntress,  and  hostess  arc 
faulty ;  the  radical  part  of  the  word  being  Germanic,  and 


1-iO  ON"  GENDER. 

tlic  secondary  part  classical :  indeed,  in  strict  Englisli 
Grammar,  the  termination  -ess  has  no  place  at  all.  It  is 
a  classic,  not  a  Gothic,  element. 

4.  The  termination  -inn,  is  current  in  German,  as  the 
equivalent  to  -ess,  and  as  a  feminine  affix  {freund  =  a 
friend;  frcundinn  =  a  female  friend).  In  English  it 
occurs  only  in  a  fragmentary  form ; — e.  g.,  in  vixen,  a 
true  feminine  derivative  from  fox  =fuchsinji,  German. 

Bruin  =  the  hear,  may  be  either  a  female  form,  as  in 
Old  High  German  i)ero  »=«  he-hear,  jnrinn  =a  she-hear  : 
or  it  may  be  the  Norse  form  hj6rn=a  hear,  male  or 
female. 

Caution. — Words  like  margravine  and  landgravine 
prove  nothing,  being  scarcely  naturalised. 

5.  The  termination  -str,  as  in  wehster,  songster,  and 
haxter,  was  originally  a  feminine  affix.  Thus,  in  Anglo- 
Saxon. 

S.iDgerc,  a  male  shiger  ]  f  Saugestre,  a  female  singer. 

Biicerc,  a  male  baker  Baccstro,  a  female  baker. 

FiSelere,  a  male  fiddler  I  were  ojvpo-   !  FiSclstre,  a  female  fiddler. 

Yobbere,  a  male  weaver  |  sed  to        j  Vebbiistre,  a  female  weaver. 

Ra;dere,  a  male  reader  \  Riedestre,  a  female  reader. 

Soamerc,  a  male  scamcr  J  y  Scamestre,  a  female  seamer. 

The  same  is  the  case  in  the  present  Dutch  of  Holland : 
e.g.,  spookstcr=a  female  fortune-teller;  haxster=a 
haking-ivomaji ;  waschster  =»=  a  ivasherivoinan.  The  "\\  ord 
spinster  still  retains  its  original  feminine  force, 

G.  The  words  songstress  and  seamstress,  besides 
being,  as  far  as  concerns  the  intermixture  of  languages,  in 
the  ])redicament  of  shepherdess,  have,  mcn-eover,  a  double 
feminine  termination ;  1st.  -str,  of  Germanic,  2nd.  -ess,  of 
classical,  origin. 

T.  In  the  word  heroine  we  have  a  Greek  termination, 
just  as  'ix  is  a  Latin,  and  -inn  a  German  one.     It  must 


ox   GEXDEII.  141 

not,  however,  be  considered  as  derived  from  hero,  by  any 
process  of  the  English  language,  but  be  dealt  with  as  a 
separate  importation  from  the  Greek  language. 

8.  The  form  dcaconness  is  not  wholly  unexceptionable  ; 
since  the  termination  -ess  is  of  Latin,  the  root  deacon  of 
Greek  origin :  this  Greek  origin  being  rendered  all  tlie 
more  conspicuous  by  the  spelling,  deacon  (from  diaco)ws), 
as  compared  with  the  Latin  decamis. 

0.  Goose,  gander. — One  peculiarity  in  this  pair  of 
words  has  already  been  indicated.  In  the  older  forms  of 
the  word  goose,  such  as  xw,  Greek ;  anscr,  Latin  ;  ga7is, 
German,  as  well  as  in  the  derived  form  gander,  we  have 
the  proofs  that,  originally,  there  belonged  to  the  word  the 
sound  of  the  letter  n.  Li  the  forms  oSoi)?,  686vto<;,  Greek  ; 
dens,  dcntis,  Latin ;  zahn,  German ;  tooth,  English,  we 
find  the  analogy  that  accounts  for  the  ejection  of  the  w, 
and  the  lengthening  of  the  vowel  preceding.  With  re- 
spect, however,  to  the  d  in  gander,  it  is  not  easy  to  say 
whether  it  is  inserted  in  one  word  or  omitted  in  the  other. 
Iseither  can  we  give  the  precise  power  of  the  -er.  The 
following  forms  occur  in  the  different  Gothic  dialects. 
Gans,  fem.  ;  ganazzo,  masc.  Old  High  German — gos, 
f  ;  gandra,  m.,  Anglo-Saxon — gtis,  Icelandic,  £  ;  gaas, 
Danish,  f ;  gassi,  Icelandic,  m. ;  gasse,  Danish,  m. — 
ganser,  ganserer,  gansart,  gunserich,  gander,  masculine 
forms  in  different  New  German  dialects. 

10.  Observe,  the  form  gunserich,  has  a  masculine 
termination.  The  word  tuuberich,  in  provincial  New  Ger- 
man, has  the  same  form  and  the  same  power.  It  denotes 
a  male  dove ;  tauhe,  in  German,  signifying  a  dove.  In 
gunserich  and  tdiiherich,  we  find  preserved  the  termina- 
tion -ricJi  (or  rik),  with  a  masculine  power.  Of  this  ter- 
mination we  have  a  remnant,  in  English,  preserved  in  the 
curious  word  drake.     To  duck  the  word  drake  has  no  ety- 


142  ON   GENDER. 

mological  relation  ^vhatsocvcr.  It  is  derived  from  a  '\vord 
■with  Avliicli  it  has  but  one  letter  in  common ;  viz.,  the 
Latin  anas  =  a  duck.  Of  this  the  root  is  a?iat-,  as  seen 
in  the  genitive  case  anatis.  In  Old  High  German  Ave 
find  the  form  anetrekJio  ==  a  drake  ;  in  provincial  New  High 
German  there  .is  eiiterich  and  dntrecht,  from  whence  come 
the  English  and  Low  German  form,  drake. 

11.  Peacock,  peahen. — In  these  compounds,  it  is  not 
the  word  pea  that  is  rendered  masculine  or  feminine  by 
the  addition  of  cock  and  Jie7i,  but  it  is  the  words  cock  and 
hen  that  are  modified  by  prefixing  j)ea. 


THE   NUMBEKS.  143 


CHAPTER    III. 


THE  NUMBERS. 


§  194.  Ix  tlic  Greek  language  the  Avortl  iiatar  signifies 
tL  father,  denoting  07ie,  "wliilst  2:>a^ere  signifies  two  fathers^ 
denoting  a  pair,  and  thirdly,  fateres  signifies  fathers, 
speaking  of  any  number  beyond  two.  The  three  words, 
yatccr,  i^atere,  and  pateres,  are  said  to  be  in  different 
numbers,  the  difference  of  meaning  being  expressed  by  a 
difi"erence  of  form.  These  numbers  have  names.  The 
number  that  speaks  of  one  is  the  singular,  the  number 
that  speaks  of  two  is  the  dual  (from  the  Latin  word  duo 
=  two),  and  the  number  that  speaks  of  more  than  two  is 
the  plifral. 

All  languages  haA^e  numbers,  but  all  languages  have 
not  them  to  the  same  extent.  The  Hebrew  has  a  dual, 
but  it  is  restricted  to  nouns  only.  It  has,  moreover,  this 
peculiarity  ;  it  applies,  for  the  most  part,  only  to  things 
which  are  naturally  double,  as  the  two  eyes,  the  two  hands, 
&c.  The  Latin  has  no  dual  number,  except  the  natural 
one  in  .the  words  a?7ibo  and  d2io. 

§  195.  The  question  presents  itself, — to  what  extent 
have  we  numbers  in  English  ?  Like  the  Greek,  Hebrew, 
and  Latin,  we  have  a  singular  and  a  plural.  Like  the 
Latin,  and  unlike  the  Greek  and  Hebrew,  we  have  no 
dual. 

§  196.  DifTcrent  from  the  question,  to  u-hat  degree 
have  we  numbers  1  is  the  question, — over  what  extent  of 


144  T»»itf*'^  THE   NUMBERS. 

oiir  language  have  v:e  nnmhers  7  This  distinction  has 
already  been  foreshadoAved  or  indicated.  The  Greeks, 
who  said  iypt6=^Iheat,  typtetoii=ye  iu-o  beat,  iyptomen 
=  ire  tea/,  had  a  dual  nnnd)cr  for  their  verbs  as -well  as 
their  nouns ;  -while  the  Hebrew  dual  was  limited  to  the 
nouns  owXy.  .In  the  Greek,  then,  the  dual  number  is 
spread  over  a  greater  extent  of  the  language  than  in  the 
Hebrew. 

There  is  no  dual  in  the  jnesent  English.  It  has  been 
seen,  however,  that  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  there  was  a  dual. 
But  the  Anglo-Saxon  dual,  being  restricted  to  the  person- 
al pronouns  [wit  =  we  two  ;  git=ye  two),  Avas  not  co-ex- 
tensive with  the  Greek  dual. 

There  is  no  dual  in  the  present  German.  In  the  an- 
cient German  there  loas  one. 

In  the  present  Danish  and  Swedish  there  is  no  dual. 
In  the  Old  Norse  and  in  the  present  Icelandic  a  dual 
number  is  to  be  found. 

Frrjm  this  we  learn  that  the  dual  number  is  one  of 
tho5*e.  inflections  that  languages  drop  as  they  become  mod- 
ern. 

§  197.  The  numbers,  then,  in  the  present  English  are 
tWO,  the  singular  and  the  plural.  Over  what  extent  of 
language  have  we  a  plural?  The  Latins  say  bo?ius 
plater  —  a  good  fatlier  ;  boni  patres  =  good  fathers.  In 
the  Latin,  the  adjective  bonus  changes  its  form  with  the 
change  of  number  of  the  substantive  that  it  accompanies. 
In  English  it  is  only  the  substantive  that  is  changed. 
Hence  we  see  that  in  the  Latin  language  the  numbers 
were  extended  to  adjectives,  whereas  in  English  they 
are  confined  to  the  substantives  and  pronouns.  Com- 
pared with  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  present  English  is  in 
the  same  relation  as  it  is  with  the  Latin.  In  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  there  were  plural  forms  for  the  adjectives. 


§  198.  Respecting  the  formation  of  the  plural,  the  cur- 
rent rule  is,  that  it  is  formed  from  the  singular  by  adding 
s,  as  father,  fathers.  This,  however,  is  by  no  means 
a  true  expression.  The  letter  s  added  to  the  word  father, 
making  it  fathers,  is  s  to  the  eye  only.  To  the  ear  it  is 
z.  The  "word  sounds  fatherz.  If  the  5  retained  its  sound 
the  spelling  "would  be  fatherce.  In  stags,  lads,  c^c,  the 
Boimd  is  siagz,  ladz.  The  rule,  then,  for  the  formation 
of  the  English  plurals,  rigorously,  though  somewhat 
lengthily  expressed,  is  as  follows. —  The  jdural  is  for //red 
fro//i  the  si/igidar,  by  addi/ig  to  icords  ending  in  a 
voice!,  a  liquid  or  flat  i/iute,  the  flat  lene  sibilant  (z); 
a/id  to  icords  ending  i/i  a  sharp  i/iute,  the  sharp  lene 
sibilant  (s):  e.g.  (the  sbund  of  the  word  being  expressed), 
j/ea,  peaz ;  tree,  trcez;  day,  dayz;  hill,  hillz ;  hen, 
henz ;  gig,  gigz ;  trap,  traps;  pit,  ]) its;  stack,  stacks. 

§  199.  Upon  the  formation  of  the  English  plural  some 
further  remarks  are  necessary. 

a.  In  the  case  of  words  ending  in  b,  v,  d,  the  th  in 
thine  =  '^,  or  g,  a  change  either  of  the  final  flat  consonant, 
or  of  the  sharp  s  affixed,  was  not  a  matter  of  choice  but  of 
necessity;  the  combinations  abs,  avs,  ads,  a^s,  ags, 
being  unpronounceable, 

b.  Whether  the  first  of  the  tvro  mutes  should  be  ac- 
commodated to  the  second  {aps,  afs,  ats,  afs,  aks),  or  the 
second  to  the  first  {abz,  avz,  adz,  d^z,  agz),  is  deter- 
mined by  the  habit  of  the  pai'ticular  language  in  ques- 
tion ;  and,  with  a  few  apparent  exceptions  it  is  the  rule  of 
the  English  language  to  accommodate  the  second  sound  to 
the  first,  and  not  vice  versa. 

c.  Such  combinations  as  peas,  trees,  hills,  he/is,  &c., 
(the  s  preserving  its  original  power,  and  being  sounded  as 
is  written  peace,  treece,  Jtillce,  he/ice),  being  pronounceable, 
the  change  from  5  to  z,  in  wdrds  so  ending,  is  not  a 

8 


1-46  TUE  JS- UMBERS. 

matter  determined  by  the  necessity  of  the  case,  but  by  the 
habit  of  the  English  lan";uas!;c. 

(1.  Although  the  vast  majority  of  our  plurals  ends,  not 
in  s,'  but  in  z,  the  original  addition  was  not  z,  but  s. 
This  we  infer  from  three  facts  :  1.  From  the  spelling  ;  2. 
from  the  fact  of  the  sound  of  z  being  either  rare  or  non- 
existent in  Anglo-Saxon  ;  3.  from  the  sufficiency  of  the 
causes  to  brin2;  about  the  change. 

It  may  now  be  seen  that  some  slight  variations  in  the 
form  of  our  plurals  are  either  mere  points  of  orthography, 
or  else  capable  of  being  explained  on  very  simple  eu- 
phonic principles. 

§  200.  Boxes,  churches,  judges,  lashes,  kisses,  blazes, 
princes. — Here  there  is  the  addition,  not  of  the  mere 
letter  s,  but  of  the  sjdlable  -es.  x\s  5r  cannot  be  imme- 
diately added  to  5,  the  intervention-  of  a  vowel  becomes 
necessary ;  and  that  all  the  words  whose  plural  is  formed 
in  -cs  really  end  either  in  the  sounds  of  s,  or  in  the  allied 
sounds  of  z,  sh,  or  zh,  may  be  seen  by  analysis  ;  since 
x  =  ks,  ch  =  tsh,  and  J  or  ge  =  dzh,  whilst  ce,  in  prince,  is 
a  more  point  of  orthography  for  s. 

Monarchs,  heresiarchs. — Here  the  ch  equals  not  tsh, 
but  k,  so  that  there  is  no  need  of  being  told  that  they  do 
not  follow  the  analogy  of  church,  &c. 

Cargoes,  echoes. — From  cargo  and  echo,  with  the 
addition  of  e  ;  an  orthographical  expedient  for  the  sake  of 
denoting  the  length  of  tlie  A'owel  o. 

Beai(ty,  heanties ;  key,  keys. — Like  the  Avord  cargoes, 
etc.,  these  forms  arc  points,  not  of  etymology,  but  of 
orthograph}^. 

Pence. — The  peculiarity  of  this  word  consists  in  having 
a  Jlat  liquid  followed  by  the  sharp  sibilant  s  (spelt  ce), 
contrary  to  the  rule  given  above.  In  the  first  place,  it  is 
a  contracted  form  from  ■pennies ;  in  the  second  place,  its 


TUE   NUMEEKS.  147 

sense  is  collective  ratlicr  than  plural ;  in  the  third  place, 
the  use  of  the  sharp  sibilant  Icne  distinguishes  it  froni 
peiis,  sounded  j)enz.  That  its  sense  is  collective  rather 
than  plural,  we  learn  from  the  word  sixpence,  which, 
compared  Avith  sixpences,  is  no  plural,  hut  a  singular 
form. 

Dice. — In  respect  to  its  form,  peculiar  for  the  reason 
that  pence  is  peculiar. — We  find  the  sound  of  5  after  a 
vowel,  where  that  of  z  is  expected.  This  distinguishes 
dice  for  play,  from  dies  (diz)  for  coining.  Dice,  perhaps, 
like  pence,  is  collective  rather  than  plui'al. 

In  geese,  lice,  and  Quice,  we  have,  apparently,  the 
same  phenomenon  as  in  dice,  viz.,  a  sharp  sibilant  {s) 
where  ^jlat  one  {z)  is  expected.  The  s,  however,  in  these 
words  is  not  the  sign  of  the  plural,  but  the  last  letter  of 
the  original  word. 

Alms. — This  is  no  true  plural  form.  The  5  belongs 
to  the  original  word,  Anglo-Saxon,  abnesse;  Greek, 
iXerj/jLoavvT} ;  just  as  the  s  in  goose  does.  How  far  the 
word,  although  a  true  singular  in  its  form,  may  have  a 
collective  signification,  and  require  its  verb  to  be  plural, 
is  a  point  not  of  etymology,  but  of  syntax.  The  same  is 
the  case  with  the  word  riches,  from  the  French  richesse. 
In  ricJics  the  last  syllable  being  sounded  as  ez,  increases 
its  liability  to  pass  for  a  plural. 

News,  means,  pains. — These,  the  reverse  of  alms  and 
riches,  are  true  plural  forms.  How  far,  in  sense,  they 
arc  singular  is  a  point  not  of  etymology,  but  of  syntax. 

Mathematics,  metaphysics,  politics,  ethics,  optics,  'phy- 
sics.—  The  following  is  an  exhibition  of  my  hypothesis 
respecting  these  words,  to  which  I  invite  the  reader's 
criticism.  All  the  words  in  point  are  of  Greek  origin, 
And  all  are  derived  from  a  Greek  adjective.  Each  is 
the  name  of  some  department  of  study,  of  some  art,  or 


1-lS  THE  KUMBEKS. 

of  some  science.  As  the  words  are  Greek,  so  also  are 
tho  sciences  ■svhicli  they  denote,  either  of  Greek  origin, 
or  else  such  as  flourished  in  Greece.  Let  the  arts  and 
sciences  of  Greece  be  expressed  in  Greek,  rather  by  a 
substantive  and  an  adjective  combined,  than  by  a  simple 
substantive ;  for  instance,  let  it  be  the  habit  of  the  lan- 
cuajre  to  say  tJie  7nusical  art,  rather  than  nmsic.  Let 
the  Greek  for  art  be  a  word  in  the  feminine  gender  ; 
e.  g..  rexvi)  {tekhnoi),  so  that  the  musical  art  be  ?;  fMovaUij 
T^-xyr)  {JiO,  moiisikcB  tekhncB).  Let,  in  the  progi-ess  of  lan- 
guage (as  "was  actually  the  case  in  Greece),  the  article 
and  substantive  be  omitted,  so  that,  for  the  musical  art. 
or  for  music,  there  stand  only  the  feminine  adjective, 
fiovcriKr].  Let  there  be,  upon  a  given  art  or  science,  a 
series  of  books,  or  treatises ;  the  Greek  for  book,  or 
treatise,  being  a  neuter  substantive,  ^l^Xtov  {biblion). 
Let  the  substantive  meaning  treatise  be,  in  the  coui'se  of 
language,  omitted,  so  that  whilst  the  science  of  physics  is 
called  (j)vcriK7]  {fj/sikce),  physic,  from  rj  (pvcrUr]  rey^vrj,  a 
series  of  treatises  (or  even  chaj)ters)  upon  the  science 
shall  be  called  ^vaiKa  {fysika)  or  physics.  Now  all  this 
was  what  happened  in  Greece.  The  science  was  denoted 
by  a  feminine  adjective  singular,  as  ^vaUr}  {fysicoi),  and 
the  treatises  upor  it,  by  the  neuter  adjective  plural,  as 
^uatKa  {fysika).  The  treatises  of  Aristotle  are  generally 
so  named.  To  apply  this,  I  conceive,  that  in  the  middle 
ages  a  science  of  Greek  origin  might  have  its  name  drawn 
from  two  sources,  viz.,  from  the  name  of  the  art  or  science, 
or  from  the  name  of  the  books  wherein  it  was  treated.  In 
the  first  case  it  had  a  singular  form,  as  jjhysic,  logic  ;  in 
the  second  place  a  plui-al  form,  as  mathematics,  7nctaphy- 
sics,  optics. 

In  what  number  these  words,  having  a  collective  sense, 
require  their  verbs  to  be,  is  a  point  of  syntax. 


THE    NUMBERS,  149 

§  201.  The  plunil  form  children  {diild-cr -en)  requires 
particular  notice. 

In  the  first  place  it  is  a  douWe  plural ;  the  -en  being 
tlie  -en  in  oxen,  Avliilst  tlic  simpler  form  dcild-er  occurs  in 
the  ohl  English,  and  in  certain  provincial  dialects. 

Now,  what  is  the  -cr  in  child-cr  ? 

In  Icelandic,  no  i)lin-al  termination  is  commoner  than 
that  in  -r  ;  as  gcisl-ar  ^flashes,  tung-nr  =  tongues,  &c. 
Nevertheless,  it  is  not  the  Icelandic  that  explains  the 
plural  form  in  question. 

Besides  the  word  childer,  wo  collect  from  the  Old 
Ili'^h  German  the  foUowino;  forms  in  -r  : — 


Hus-ir, 

Houses, 

Chalp-ir, 

Calves, 

Leinp-ir, 

Lambs, 

riet-ir, 

Blades  of  grass, 

Eig-ir, 

Eggs, 

and  others,  the  peculiarity  of  which  is  the  fact  of  their  all 
being  of  the  neuter  gender. 

Now,  the  theory  respecting  this  form  Avhich  is  pro- 
pounded by  Grimm  is  as  follows  : — 

1.  The  -r  represents  an  earlier  -s. 

2.  Which  was,  originally,  no  sign  of  a  plural  number, 
but  merely  a  neuter  derivative  affix,  connnon  to  the 
singular  as  well  as  to  the  plural  number. 

o.  In  this  form  it  appears  in  the  Mocso-Gothic :  ag-is 
^fear  (whence  ague  =  shivering),  hat-is  =  hate,  riqv-is 
=  stnoke  {reelS).  In  none  of  these  words  is  the  -5  radical, 
and  in  none  is  it  limited  to  the  singular  number. 

To  these  doctrines,  it  should  be  added,  that  the  reason 
why  a  singular  derivational  affix  should  become  the  sign 
of  the  plural  number,  lies,  most  probably,  in  the  collective 
nature  of  the  Avords  in  which  it  occurs :  Ilusir  =  a 
collection  of  houses,  eiger  =  a  collection  of  eggs,  eggcry 


150  THE  XDMBERS. 

or  cyry.     In  ■words  like  yeonian-r-y  and  Jew-r-y,  tlic  -r 
has,  probably,  the  same  origin,  and  is  collective. 

In  Wiclifl'e  -we  find  the  form  lamh-r-en,  which  is  to 
lamb  as  children  is  to  child. 

§  202.  The  form  in  -en. — In  the  Anglo-Saxon  no 
tcrniinatiun.  of  the  plural  number  is  more  common  than 
-n  :  tiingan,  tongues  ;  stcorrwi,  stars.  Of  this  termina- 
tion we  have  evident  remains  in  the  words  oxe7i,  hoscn, 
shoon,  eyiie,  words  more  or  less  antiquated.  This,  per- 
haps, is  710  true  plural.  In  wol/:-i/i  =  the  clouds,  the 
original  singular  form  is  lost. 

§  203.  Men,  feet,  teeth,  mice,  lice,  geese. — In  these  we 
have  some  of  the  oldest  Avords  in  the  language.  If  these 
were,  to  a  certainty,  true  plurals,  we  should  have  an 
appearance  somewhat  corresponding  to  the  so-called  icealc 
and  strong  tenses  of  verbs  ;  viz.,  one  series  of  plurals 
formed  by  a  change  of  the  vowel,  and  another  by  the 
addition  of  the  sibilant.  The  word  kye,  used  in  Scotland 
for  coics,  is  of  the  same  class.  The  list  in  Anirlo-Saxon 
of  words  of  this  kind  is  difierent  from  that  of  the  present 
English. 

Sing.  riui: 

Freond Fiy'iid Friends. 

Feund F^-nd Foes. 

Nilit Nilit Niyhts. 

Boc Bee Boohs. 

Burh Byrig Bitrr/hs. 

Broc Brec Breeches. 

Turf Ty'rf Turves. 

§  204.  Brethreti. — Here  there  are  two  changes.  1. 
The  alteration  of  the  vowel.  2.  The  addition  of  -cti.  Mr. 
Guest  quotes  the  forms  hrethre  and  hrolhre  from  the  Old 
English.     The  sense  is  collective  rather  than  plural. 

Peasen=  pulse. — As  children  is  a  double  form  of  one 


THE   NUMBEES.  161 

sort  (r  +  ew),  so  is  jjeasen  a  double  form  of  another 
(5  +  en) ;  pea,  peas,  pca-s-en.  Wallis  speaks  to  tlie  sin- 
gular  power  of  the  form  in  -s ; — "Dicunt  nonnulli  a 
pease,  phiralitcr  2)easen ;  at  melius,  singularitcr  a  pea, 
pluraliter  pease.'^ — P.  7T.  He  might  have  added,  that, 
theoretically,  pease  was  the  proper  singular  form ;  as 
6ho"n-n  by  the  Latin  pis-nTn. 
Pullen  =  poultry'". 

Lussurioso. — What  ?  tlirec-and-tweuty  years  in  law  ? 
Vendice. — I  have  known  those  wlio  have  been  five-aml-fifty,  and  all 
Cxhciwi  jndlcn  and  pigs. — "Revenger's  Tragedy,"  iv.  1. 

If  this  were  a  plural  form,  it  would  be  a  very  anoma- 
lous one.  The  -en,  however,  is  no  more  a  sign  of  the  plu- 
ral than  is  the  -es  in  ricJi-es  {richessc.)  The  proper  form 
is  in  -ain  or  -ejjn. 

A  false  thcefe. 
That  came  like  a  flilse  fox,  my  pullain  to  kill  and  mischeefe. 

"  Gammer  Gurtou's  Needle,"  v.  2. 

Chickens. — A  third  variety  of  the  double  inflection 
(e}i-rs),  with  the  additional  peculiarity  of  the  form  chick- 
en being  used,  at  present,  almost  exclusively  in  the  singu- 
lar nundjor,  although,  originally,  it  was,  probably,  the 
plural  of  chic/c.  So  Wallis  considered  it : — "  At  olim 
etiam  per  -en  vol  -i/n  formabant  pluralia ;  quorum  pauca 
admodum  adhuc  rctincmus.  Ut,  an  ox,  a  chick;  plurali- 
tur  oxen,  chicken  (sunt  qui  dicunt  in  singular!  chicken,  et 
in  plurali  chickens)."     Chick,  chick-en,  cldck-en-s. 

Fern. — According  to  Wallis  the  -n  in  fer-n  is  tlie  -en 
in  oven,  in  otljcr  words  a  plural  tcrminntion  : — *'  A  fere 
{filix)  pluraliter  fern  (verum  nunc  plerunKjue  fern  utro- 
que  numcro  dicitur,  sed.ct  in  plurali  fern.s;) ;  nam  fere  et 
feres  prope'obsoleta  sunt."  Subject  to  this  view,  the  word 
fer-n-s  would  exhibit  the  same  phenomenon  as  the  word 


152  THE   NUMBERS. 

chickc  n-s.  It  is  doubtful,  hoAvcvcr,  wlietlicr  Wallis's  view 
be  correct.  A  reason  for  believing  tlie  -n  to  bo  radical  is 
presented  by  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  fcarn,  and  the  Old 
High  German,  vararn. 

Women. — Pronounced  wimmen,  as  oj^poscd  to  the 
singular  ioxTXi.woom'nian.  Probably  an  instance  of  accom- 
modation. 

Houses. — Pronounced  houz-cz.  The  same  peculiarity 
in  the  case  of  s  and  z,  as  occurs  between  f  and  v  in  "words 
like  I'tfe,  lives,  &c. 

Paths,  youths. — Pronounced  padhz,  yoodhz.  The 
same  peculiarity  in  the  case  of  ]>  and  b.  as  occurs  between 
9  and  z  in  the  words  ho7(se,  houses.  "  Finita  in  /  ple- 
rumque  alleviantur  in  plurali  numero,  substituendo  v  ;  ut 
wife,  wives,  <fec.  Eademque  alleviatio  est  etiam  in  s  et  th, 
quamvis  retento  charactcre,  in  house,  cloth,  path.'' 

§  205.  The  words  sounded  houz-ez,  padh-z,  yoodh-z, 
taken  along  with  the  extract  from  Wallis,  lead  us  to  an 
important  class  of  words. — §  199  h. 

§  206.  Certain  words  ending  in  /,  like  loaf,  wife,  &c. 

The  regular  plural  of  these  would  be  loafs,  wifcs,  pro- 
nounced loafce,  u:ifce,  (fcc. 

But  this  is  not  the  case.  The  sound  added  to  the  final 
/  is  the  sound  of  z,  not  that  of  s. 

And  the  plurals  are  sounded  loavz,  wivz  {wivez, 
lueivz). 

Furthermore,  the  sound  of  the  final  /  is  changed  to 
that  of  V  ;  in  other  words,  the  first  of  the  two  letters  is 
accommodated  to  the  second,  in  violation  to  the  rule  of 
§  199  h. 

Can  this  be  explained?  Perhaps  it  can.  In  the 
Swedish  language  the  letter  f  has  the  sound  of  v ;  so 
that  staf  is  sounded  stav. 

Again,  in  the  allied  languages  the  words  in  question 


THE   NUMBERS.  153 

011(1  in  tlic  flat  (not  the  sharp)  mute, — wcih,  hail),  calh, 
halb,  stab,  iScc.  <=  wife,  leaf,  calf  half  stafl'. 

This  makes  it  probable  tbat,  originally,  tlic  /  in  wife, 
loaf  &c.,  Avas  sounded  as  v  ;  so  tliat  the  singular  forms 
were  ivive,  loav. 

If  so,  the  phiral  is  perfectly  normal ;  it  being  the 
singular  form  on  -which  the  irrcguhirity  lies. 


loi  TnE    CASES. 


CHAPTER  IV. 


ON    THE    CASES. 


§  207.  The  extent  to  ^Yllicl^  tlicre  arc,  in  the  En^^lisli 
language,  cases,  dcpencis  on  the  meaning  which  we  attach 
to  the  word  case.  In  the  term  a  house  of  a  father,  the 
idea  expressed  by  the  words  of  a  father,  is  an  idea  of 
relation  between  them  and  the  Avord  house.  This  idea  is 
an  idea  of  property  or  possession.  The  relation  between 
the  words  father  and  house  may  be  called  the  possessive 
relation.  This  relation,  or  connexion,  between  the  two 
words,  is  expressed  by  the  preposition  of 

In  the  term  a  fathers  house,  the  idea  is,  there  or 
thereabouts,  the  same  ;  the  relation  or  connexion  between 
the  two  words  being  the  same.  The  expression,  however, 
differs.  In  a  fathefs  house  the  relation,  or  connexion,  is 
expressed,  not  by  a  preposition,  but  by  a  change  of  form, 
father  becoming  fat]ier''s. 

He  gave  the  house  to  a  father. — Here  the  words 
father  and  house  stand  in  another  sort  of  relationship, 
the  relationship  being  expressed  by  the  preposition  to. 
The  idea  to  a  father  differs  from  the  idea  of  a  father,  in 
being  expressed  in  one  vray  only  ;  viz.,  by  the  preposition. 
There  is  no  second  mode  of  expressing  it  by  a  change  of 
form,  as  was  done  Avith  fathefs. 

The  fatlicr  taught  the  cJiUd. — Here  there  is  neither 
proposition  nor  change  of  form.     The   connexion   between 


THE    CASES.  155 

the  words  father»ain\  child  is  expressed  b}'  the  arrange- 
ment only. 

§  208.  NoAv  if  the  rohition  alone  between  two  words  con- 
stitute a  case,  the  words  a  child,  to  a  father,  of  a  father, 
and  father's,  are  all  equally  cases  ;  of  which  one  may  be 
called  the  accusative,  another  the  dative,  a  third  the  geni- 
tive, and  so  on. 

Perhaps,  however,  the  relationship  alone  docs  not  con- 
stitute a  case.  Perhaps  there  is  a  necessity  of  either  the 
addition  of  a  preposition  (as  in  of  a  father),  or  of  a 
change  in  f^rm  (as  in  fathcr''s).  In  this  case  (although 
child  be  not  so)  father s,  of  a  father,  and  to  a  father,  are 
all  equally  cases. 

Now  it  has  long  been  remarked,  that  if  the  use  of  a 
preposition  constitute  a  case,  there  must  be  as  many  cases 
in  a  language  as  there  are  prepositions,  and  that  "  above  a 
man,  beneath  a  man,  beyond  a  man,  round  about  a  man, 
icithin.  a  man,  without  a  man,  shall  be  cases  as  Avell  as 
of  a  man,  to  a,  man,  and  icith  a  manP 

§  209.  For  etymological  purposes,  therefore,  it  is  ne- 
cessary to  limit  the  meaning  of  the  word  case  ;  an-l,  as  a 
sort  of  definition,  it  may  be  laid  down  that  where  there  is 
no  cJiange  of  form  there  is  no  case.  With  this  remark, 
the  English  language  may  be  compared  with  the  Latin. 

Latiii.  English. 

Sing.   Xom.   Pater  ...         a  father. 
Gen,     Patris  .         ...     a  fathei's. 

Dat.      Patri  .         .         .         to  a  father. 
Ace.      Patretn         .        .        .a  father. 

All.      Patre'  .         .         .        from  a  father. 

Here,  since  in  the'  Latin  language  there  are  five 
changes  of  form,  whilst  in  English  there  are  but  txDo, 
there  arc  (as  far,  at  least,  as  the  word  jyatcr  and  father 


156  THE   CASES. 

arc  concerned)  three  more  cases  in  Latin  than  in  Eng- 
lish. 

It  (Iocs  not,  however,  follow  that  because  in  the  partic- 
ular Avord  father  we  have  hut  two  cases,  there  may  not  he 
other  words  wherein  there  are  more  than  two. 

§  210.  Neither  does  it  follow,  that  because  two  words 
may  have  the  same  form  they  are  necessarily  in  the 
same  case ;  a  remark  which  leads  to  the  distinction  be- 
tween a  real  and  an  accidental  identity  of  form. 

In  the  language  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  the  genitive 
cases  of  the  words  sml'6,  ende,  and  dccg;  were  respective- 
ly, s?ni^es,  endcs,  and  dages ;  whilst  the  nominative 
plurals  were,  s})ii'6as,  cndas,  and  dagas. 

But  when  a  change  took  place,  by  which  the  vowel  of 
the  last  syllable  in  each  word  was  ejected,  the  result 
was,  that  the  forms  of  the  genitive  singular  and  the 
nominative  plural,  originally  different,  became  one  and 
the  same ;  so  that  the  identity  of  the  two  cases  is  an 
accident. 

This  fact  relieves  tlie  English  grammarian  from  a 
difficulty.  The  nominative  plural  and  the  genitive  singu- 
lar are,  in  the  present  language  of  England,  identical ;  the 
apostrophe  in  fathefs  being  a  mere  matter  of  orthogra- 
phy. However,  there  was  once  a  difference.  This  modi- 
fies the  previous  statement,  which  may  now  stand  thus  : — 
for  a  change  of  case  there  must  be  a  change  of  form 
existing  or  presumed. 

§  211.  The  number  of  our  cases  and  ike  extent  of 
language  over  which  tliey  spread. — In  the  English  lan- 
guage there  is  undoubtedly  a  nominative  case.  This 
occurs  in  substantives,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  {father, 
good,  he)  equally.     It  is  found  in  both  numbers. 

?  212.  Accusative. — Some  call  this  the  objective  case. 
The  words  hi)n  and  them  (whatever  they  may  have  been 


THE   CASES.  157 

originally)  are  now  (to  a  certain  extent)  true  accusatives. 
The  accusative  case  is  found  in  pronouns  only.  TAee, 
mc,  us,  and  i/ou  are,  to  a  certain  extent,  true  accusa- 
tives. These  are  accusative  thus  far :  1.  They  are  not 
derived  from  any  other  case.  2.  They  are  distinguished 
from  the  forms  I,  mij,  &c.  3.  Their  meaning  is  accusa- 
tive. Nevertheless,  they  are  only  imperfect  accusatives. 
They  have  no  sign  of  case,  and  are  distinguished  by 
negative  characters  only. 

One  word  in  the  present  English  is  probably  a  true 
accusative  in  the  strict  sense  of  the  term,  viz.,  the  word 
tivain  =  two.  The  -n  in  tioai-n  is  the  -7i  in  hine  =  him 
and  hu-one=ichoni.  This  we  sec  from  the  following 
mflection : — 

Keut.        JIasc.  Fein. 

jY.  and  Ace.        Twa,       Twegeii,       Twa. 


Abl.  and  Uat.  Twam,  Twae'in. 

Gen.  Twegra,  Twega. 

Although  nominative  as  well  as  accusative,  I  have  little 
doubt  as  to  the  original  character  of  twegen  being  accu- 
sative. The  -n  is  by  no  means  radical ;  besides  which, 
it  is  the  sign  of  an  accusative  case,  and  is  not  the  sign  of 
a  nominative. 

§  213.  Dative. — In  the  antiquated  word  xchiloni  {at 
times),  we  have  a  remnant  of  the  old  dative  in  -m.  The 
sense  of  the  word  is  abverbial :  its  form,  however,  is  that 
of  a  dative  case. 

§  214.  Genitive. — Some  call  this  the  possessive  case. 
It  is  found  in  substantives  and  pronouns  {/ather^s,  his), 
but  not  in  adjectives.  It  is  formed  like  the  nominative 
plural,  by  the  addition  of  the  Icnc  sibilant  {father, 
fathers ;  buck,  bucks);  or  if  tlic  word  end  in  -s,  by  that 
of  -es  (Jjoxes,  judges,  &c.)     It  is  f  »und  in  both  numbers  : 


158  THE   CASES. 

the  nion^s  Jteai'ts  ;  the  children's  bread.  In  the  plural 
number,  however,  it  is  rare ;  so  rare,  indeed,  that  Avhere- 
ever  the  plural  ends  in  5  (as  it  almost  always  does),  there 
is  no  genitive.  If  it  Avcrc  not  so,  we  should  have  such 
words  as  fatherses,  foxescs,  priiiceses,  <fcc. 

§  215.  Instrnmeiital. — The  following  extracts  from 
Rask's  "  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar,"  teach  us  that  there 
exist  in  the  present  English  two  powers  of  the  Avord  spelt 
t-h-e,  or  of  the  so-called  definite  article — "  The  demonstra- 
tive pronouns  are  J^a?/,  se,  se6  {id,  is,  ea),  which  are  also 
used  for  the  article  ;  and  ]>is,  ]>es,  ]>c6s  {hoc,  hic,  hmc). 
They  arc  thus  declined  : — 

Neut.       Masc.       Fern.  Kcut.       Masc.       Fcm. 


Sing     N,     \vdt 

se 

seo 

J)i3 

})e3 

Jieos. 

A.    \vit 

J)  one 

>A 

l^is 

J'isne 

Jias. 

\ 

J 

y 

1 

"~r 

All. 

h'' 

f'ie're 

]7ise 

]:'L=se 

h. 

Jiam 

J^aj're 

Jiisum 

]?isse. 

G. 

l^ffiS 

]ia;'re 

Jiiscs 

J'isse. 

^ 

, 

\ 

J 

riur.K  and  A. 

>d 

]>a3. 

Abl.  and  JD. 

]5am 

Jiisum. 

G. 

Jiara. 

fissa. 

"  The  indeclinable  \e  is  often  used  instead  of  \oit,  se, 
seO,  in  all  cases,  but  especially  with  a  relative  significa- 
tion, and,  in  later  times,  as  an  article.  Hence  the  En- 
glish article  ike. 

"  Pi/'  seems  justly  to  be  received  as  a  proper  ahlativus 
itistrumenti,  as  it  occurs  often  in  this  chai'acter,  even  in 
the  masculine  gender  ;  as,  mid,  ]>y'  a]'e  =  with  that  oath 
("  Inns  Leges,"  53).  And  in  the  same  place  in  the  dative, 
on  ]>aini  a]>e  =  in  that  oath.^^ — Pp.  bQ,  57. 

Hence  the  the  that  has  originated  out  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  Yy'  is  one  word  ;  whilst  the  the  that  has  originated 


THE   CASES.  159 

out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  }>e,  another.  Tlic  latter  is  the 
common  article :  the  former  the  the  in  expressions  like  all 
the  more,  all  the  better  =  more  hy  all  that,  better  by  all 
that,  and  the  Latin  phrases  eo  majus,  eo  melius. 

That  ^L•hy  is  in  the  same  case  Avith  the  instrumental 
the  (=  ]>y')  may  be  seen  from  the  following  Anglo-Saxon 
inflexion  of  the  interrogative  pronoun  : — 


Kent. 

Masc. 

N.       Hw£L't 

"Hwa 

A.    HwcBt 

Ilwoue  (h\va;nu) 

All. 

Hwi 

D. 

Hwdin 

(liwte'm') 

G. 

H"5V£es. 

Hence,  then,  in  the  and  why  we  have  instrumental 
ablatives,  or,  simply,  inslrumcntals. 

§  21G.  The  deteniiinatioii  of  cases. — IIow  do  Ave  de- 
termine cases  ?  In  other  Avords,  Avhy  do  Ave  call  him 
and  ihe7/i  accusatives  rather  than  datives  or  genitives? 
By  one  of  tA\"o  means  ;  viz.,  either  by  the  sense  or  the 
form. 

Suppose  that  in  the  English  language  there  A\-erc  ten 
thousand  datiVe  cases  and  as  many  accusatives.  Suppose, 
also,  that  all  the  dative  cases  ended  in  -7n,  and  all  the 
accusatives  in  some  other  letter.  It  is  very  evident  that, 
Avhatever  might  be  the  meaning  of  the  Avords  hi??i  and 
them  their  form  would  l^e  dative.  In  this  case  the  mean- 
ing being  accusatives,  and  the  form  dative,  we  should 
doubt  Avhich  test  to  take. 

My  OAvn  opinion  is,  that  it  Avould  be  convenient  to 
determine  cases  by  the  forjn  of  the  Avord  alo}ie  ;  so  that, 
even  if  a  Avord  had  a  dative  sense  onl}'  once,  Avhere  it  had 
an  accusative  sense  ten  thousand  times,  such  a  Avord 
should  be  said  to  bo  in  tlie  dative  case.     Now  the  Avorda 


160  THE   CASES. 

lain  and  Ihcin  (to  uliicli  Ave  may  add  ivhom)  Avcrc  once 
dative  cases ;  *  -?/i  in  Anglo-Saxon  being  the  sign  of  tlie 
dative  case.  In  the  time  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  their  sense 
coincided  -with  their  form.  At  present  they  are  dative 
forms  Avith  an  accusative  meaning.  Still,  as  the  word 
g-ivc  takes  after  it  a  dative  case,  Ave  have,  even  now,  in 
the  sentence,  g^ive  it  him,  give  it  thetn,  remnants  of  the 
old  dative  sense.  To  say  give  it  to  him,  to  them,  is  un- 
necessary and  pedantic:  neither  do  I  object  to  the  expres- 
sion, whom  shall  I  give  it?  If  ever  the  formal  test  be- 
come generally  recognised  and  consistently  adhered  to, 
him,  tlteni,  and  whom  will  be  called  datives  with  a  lati- 
tude of  meaning ;  and  then  the  only  true  and  unequivocal 
accusatives  in  the  English  language  Avill  be  the  forms  yon, 
thee,  us,  me,  and  trvaiii. 

§  217.  Analysis  of  cases. — In  the  word  childi'ciCs  wc 
are  enabled  to  separate  the  word  into  three  parts.  1.  The 
root  child.  2.  The  plural  signs  r  and  en.  3.  The  sign  of 
the  genitive  case,  s.  In  this  case  the  word  is  said  to  be 
analysed,  since  we  not  only  take  it  to  pieces,  but  also  give 
the  respective  powers  of  each  of  its  elements;  stating 
which  denotes  the  case,  and  which  the  number.  Although 
it  is  too  much  to  say  that  the  analysis  of  every  case  of 
every  number  can  be  thus  effected,  it  ought  always  to  be 
attempted. 

§  218.  The  true  nature  of  llic  genitive  form  iti  '5. — It 
is  a  common  notion  that  the  genitive  form  fatJiefs  is  con- 
tracted from  fatlier  his.  The  expression  in  our  liturgy, 
for  Jesus  Christ  his  sake,  which  is  merely  a  j^leonastic 
one,  is  the  only  foundation  for  this  assertion.  As  the 
idea,  however,  is  not  only  one  of  the  commonest,  but  also 
one  of  the  greatest   errors    in    etymology,  the   following 

*  Tlii.s  explains  the  wonl^,  "  Whatever  they  may  have  been  oriyin- 
illy, '  and  "  to  a  certain  extent,"  in  §  2 1  "2. 


THE   CASES.  161 

three  statements  arc  given  for  the  sake  of  contradiction 
to  it. 

1.  The  expression  the  Quee/i's  Alajesii/  is  not  capable 
of  being  reduced  to  the  Queen  his  Alajesty. 

2.  In  the  form  Ids  itself,  the  5  has  precisely  the  power 
that  it  has  in  father^s,  &c.  Now  his  cannot  be  said  to 
arise  out  of  Ae-fAi-s. 

3.  In  the  Slavonic,  Lithuauic,  and  classical  tongues, 
the  genitive  ends  in  s,  just  as  it  does  in  English ;  so  that 
even  if  the  words  father  his  would  account  for  the 
English  word  fafher^s,  it  would  not  account  for  the  San- 
skrit genitive  ])ad-as,  of  a  foot ;  the  Zend  diighdhar-s,  of  a 
daughter;  the  Lithuanic  dugter-s  •  the  Greek  6h6vT-o<; ; 
the  Latin  dent-is,  &c. 


1G2  PERSONAL   TKOXOUNS. 


CHAPTER  V. 


TJIE  PERSONAL  rROXOUNS. 


§  219.  /,  ice,  us,  me,  thou,  ye. — These  constitute  the 
true  personal  pronouns.  From  he,  she,  and  it,  tliey  differ 
in  being  destitute  of  gender. 

These  hitter  words  are  demonstrative  rather  than  per- 
sonal, so  that  there  are  iji  English  true  i^ersonal  pronoims 
for  the  first  two  persons  only. 

§  220.  The  usual  declension  of  the  personal  pronouns 
is  exceptionable.  /  and  me,  thou  and  ye,  stand  in  no 
etymological  relations  to  each  other.  The  true  "view  of  the 
words  is,  that  they  are  not  irregular  but  defective.  /  has 
no  oblique,  and  me  no  nominative  case.  And  so  it  is  with 
the  rest. 

§  221.  You. — As  for  as  the  practice  of  the  present 
mode  of  speech  is  concerned,  the  word  you  is  a  iiornina- 
tive  form ;  since  Ave  say  you  move,  you  are  moving,  you 
were  speaking. 

Why  should  it  not  be  treated  as  such  ?  There  is  no 
absolute  reason  why  it  should  not.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
form  for  you  Avas  eoio,  for  ye,  ge.  Neither  bears  any 
sign  of  case  at  all,  so  that,  form  for  form,  they  are  equally 
and  indifferently  nominative  and  accusative.  Hence,  it, 
perhaps,  is  more  logical  to  say  that  a  certain  form  {you), 
is  used  either  as  a  nominative  or  accusative,  than  to  say 


PEKSOXAL   ITvOXOUXS.  163 

that  the  accusative  case  is  used  instead  of  a  nominative. 
It  is  clear  that  you  can  be  used  instead  of  ye  only  so  far 
as  it  is  nominative  in  power. 

Ite. — As  far  as  the  evidence  of  such  expressions  as 
get  on  with  ye  is  concerned,  the  Avord  ye  is  an  accusative 
f  >rni.  The  reasons  why  it  should  or  should  not  be  treated 
as  such  are  involved  in  the  previous  paragraph. 

§  222.  Me. — carrying  out  the  views  just  laid  down, 
and  admitting  yon  to  be  a  nominative,  or  ^«a5i-nomina- 
tive  case,  we  may  extend  the  reasoning  to  the  word  we, 
and  call  it  also  a  secondary  or  equivocal  nominative  ;  in- 
asmuch as  such  phrases  as  ?7  is  me  it  ^  is  I  arc  com- 
mon. 

Now  to  call  such  expressions  incorrect  English  is  to 
assume  the  point.  No  one  says  that  c'est  moi  is  bad 
French,  and  that  cest  je  is  good. 

§  223.  Caution. — Observe,  however,  that  the  expres- 
sion it  is  me=  it  is  I  will  not  justify  the  use  of  it  is  him, 
it  is  her  =  it  is  he  and  it  is  she.  Me,  ye,  you,  arc  what 
may  be  called  indifferent  forms,  i.  e.,  nominative  as  much 
as  accusative,  and  accusative  as  much  as  nominative. 
Him  and  her,  on  the  other  hand,  are  not  indifferent.  The 
-in  and  -r  are  respectively  the  signs  of  cases  other  than 
the  nominative. 

§  224,  Again :  the  reasons  which  allow  the  form  you 
to  be  considered  as  a  nominative  plural,  on  the  strength  of 
its  being  used  for  ye,  will  not  allow  it  to  be  considered  a 
nominative  singular  on  the  strength  of  its  being  iiscd  for 
thou. 

§  225.  In  phrases  like  you  are  speaking;  6cc.,  even 
when  applied  to  a  smgle  individual,  the  idea  is  really 
plural ;  in  other  words,  the  courtesy  consists  in  treating 
one  person  as  more  than  one,  and  addressing  him  as  such, 


1^-i  PERSONAL  TRONOUXS. 

ratlicr  tlian  in  nsin^i^  a  plural  form  in  a  singular  sense.  It 
IS  certain  that,  grammatically  considered,  you^thou  is  a 
plural,  since  the  verb  with  which  it  agrees  is  plural  :-yo?i 
are  spcakins:,  not  you  art  speaking. 


RELATIVE    PRONOUN.  165 


CHAPTER    VI. 

ON  THE  TRUE    REFLECTIVK  rilOXOUN  IN  THE  CiOTHIC  LANGUAGES^ 
AND    ON    ITS    ABSENCE    IN    ENGLISH. 

§  226.  A  TRUE  reflective  pronoun  is  wanting  in  Eng- 
lish. In  other  words,  there  are  no  equivalents  to  the 
Latin  forms  sui,  sibi,  se. 

Nor  yet  are  there  any  equivalents  to  the  forms  suus, 
sua,  suum:  since  his  and  her  are  the  equivalents  to  ejus 
and  ill  ins,  and  are  not  adjectives  but  genitive  cases. 

At  the  first  view,  this  last  sentence  seems  unnecessary. 
It  might  seem  superfluous  to  state,  that,  if  there  were  no 
such  primitive  form  as  se,  there  could  be  no  such  second- 
ary form  as  suus. 

Such,  however,  is  not  the  case.  Suus  might  exist  in 
the  language,  and  yet  se  be  absent ;  in  other  words,  the 
derivative  form  might  have  continued  whilst  the  original 
one  had  become  extinct. 

Such  is  really  the  case  with  the  Old  Frisian.  The 
reflective  personal  form,  the  equivalent  to  se,  is  lost, 
whilst  the  reflective  possessive  form,  the  equivalent  to 
suus,  is  founfl.  In  the  Modern  Frisian,  however,  both 
forms  are  ]^^i 


166         DEMONSTRATIVE  PKOXOUXS. 


CHAPTER  VIL 

THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS,  &C. 

§  227.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  arc,  1.  lie,  it. 
2.  She.     3.    This,  that.     4.   The. 

He,  she,  and  it,  generally  looked  on  as  personal,  are 
here  treated  as  demonstrative  pronouns,  for  the  follo-\vinf; 
reasons. 

1.  The  personal  pronouns  form  an  extremely  natural 
class,  if  the  pronouns  of  the  two  fii'st  persons  be  taken 
by  themselves.  This  is  not  the  case  if  they  be  taken 
along  Avith  he,  it,  and  she. 

2.  The  idea  expressed  by  he,  it,  and  she  is  naturally 
that  of  demonstrativeness.  In  the  Latin  language  is,  ea, 
id  ;  ille,  ilia,  illud  ;  hie,  hcec,  hoc,  are  demonstrative  pro- 
nouns in  sense,  as  well  as  in  declension. 

3.  The  plural  forms  they,  them,  in  the  present  English, 
are  the  plural  forms  of  the  root  of  that,  a  true  demon- 
strative pronoun  ;  so  that  even  if  he,  she,  and  it  could  be 
treated  as  personal  pronouns,  the?/  could  not. 

4.  The  word  she  has  grown  out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
se6.  Now  se6  was  in  Anglo-Saxon  the  feminine  form  of 
the  definite  article ;  the  definite  article  itself  being  ori- 
ginally a  demonstrative  pronoun. 

§  228.  Compared  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  the  present 
English  stands  as  follows  : — 

She. — The  Anglo-Saxon  form  he6,  being  lost  to  the 
language,  is  replaced  by  the  feminine  article  seC. 


DEMONSTKATiVE   PKONOUNS.  167 

§  229.  Her. — This  is  a  case,  not  of  the  present  she, 
but  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  heO  :  so  that  she  may  be  said  to 
be  defective  in  the  oblique  cases,  and  her  to  be  defective 
in  the  nominative. 

Him. — A  dative  form,  "which  has  replaced  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  hvie.  When  used  as  a  dative,  it  was  neuter  as 
well  as  masculine. 

His. — Originally  neuter  as  well  as  masculine.  Now 
as  a  neuter,  replaced  by  its — "  et  quidem  ipsa  vox  his,  ut 
et  interrogativum  whose,  nihil  aliud  sunt  quaili  hee's, 
who's,  ubi  5  omnino  idem  prrestat  quod  in  aliis  posse^sivis. 
Similiter  autem  his  pro  hee's  eodem  errore  quo  nonnun- 
quam  bin  pro  been  ;  item  whose  pro  who's  codem  errore 
quo  dojie,  gone,  knoiune,  growne,  (fcc,  pro  doen,  goen, 
Icuowen,  vel  dohi,  go'n,  knowhi,  grown  ;  utrobique  contra 
analogiam  lingui^ ;  sed  usu  defenditur." — Wallis,  c.  v. 

It. — Changed  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  hit,  by  the  ejec- 
tion of  h.  The  t  is  no  part  of  the  original  word,  but  a 
sign  of  the  neuter  gender,  forming  it  regularly  from  he. 
The  same  neuter  sign  is  preserved  in  the  Latin  id  and 
ilhid. 

Its. —  In  the  course  of  time  the  nature  of  the  neuter  sign 
t,  in  it,  the  form  being  found  in  but  a  few  words,  became 
misunderstood.  Instead  of  being  looked  on  as  an  affix,  it 
passed  for  part  of  the  original  word.  Hence  was  formed 
from  it  the  anomalous  genitive  its  superseding  the  Saxon 
ins.     The  same  was  the  case  with — 

Hers. — The  r  is  no  part  of  the  original  word,  but  the 
sign  of  the  dative  case.  These  formations  are  of  value  in 
the  history  of  cases. 

§  230.  Theirs. — In  the  same  predicament  with  hers 
and  its  ;  either  the  case  of  an  adjective,  or  a  case  formed 
from  a  case. 

Than  or  then,  and   there. — Although  now   adverbs, 


IGS         DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

they  were  once  demonstrative  pronouns,  in  a  certain  case 
and  in  a  certain  gender,  viz.,  than  and  then  masculine  ac- 
cusative and  singular,  there  feminine  dative  and  singular. 
§  231.  An  exliibition  of  tlio  Anglo-Saxon  declension 
is  the  best  explanation  of  the  English.  Be  it  observed, 
that  the  cases  marked  in  italics  arc  found  in  the  present 

language.    ' 

I. 

So,  SCO  (=s/(t). 

Of  this  word  we  meet  two  forms  only,  both  of  the 
singular  number,  and  both  in  the  nominative  case ;  viz,, 
masc,  se  ;  fem.  se6  (=the).  The  neuter  gender  and  the 
other  cases  of  the  article  were  taken  from  the  pronoun 
ycet  {^  that). 

II. 

]>cct  (==that,  the),  and  ]>is  (=this). 


Netct. 

Ilase. 

Fem. 

Neut. 

Masc. 

Fem. 

ling.  Norn.    ]>at 

— 

— 

fzs 

])e3 

I'eos. 

Ace.      '\pcet 

])one 

fa 

])i3 

Jiisne 

fas. 

AM.      >y 

\y 

]>cE're. 

}>ise 

Jise 

]?isse. 

Dat.      J>am 

J^am 

]>ce're. 

j^isum 

})isum 

])isse. 

Gen.      Jffis 

jiaes 

\cc're. 

Jiises 

})ise3 

Y 

\ds. 

Jiisse. 

Flur.  Norn.  Ace. 

\d. 

AM.  Dat. 

\d77i. 

Jjisum, 

Gen. 

a  ra. 

]7issa. 

III. 

Hit  (=it),  (/;e  =  be),  he6  (=she). 

Sing.  Nom.        hit      he      hc6. 
Ace.  hit      hine  hL 

Dat.  him     him   hire. 

Gen.         his      his    hire. 


Plur.  Nom.  Ace.        hi. 

Dat.  him  (heom). 

Gen.  hii'a  (heora). 

IV. 

Jjc  (the) — Uutlcclined,  and  used  for  all  cases  and  genders. 


DEMOXSTRATIVE   PROXOUXS.  169 

§  232.    These. — Here  observe — 

1st.  That  the  s  is  no  inflection,  but  a  radical  part  of 
the  word,  like  the  s  in  geese. 

2nd.  That  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  is  ^ds. 

These  facts  create  difficulties  in  respect  to  the  '5\'ord 
these.  Mr.  Guest's  view  is,  perhaps,  the  best ;  viz.,  that 
the  plural  element  of  the  -word  is  the  final  -e,  and  that 
this  -e  is  the  old  English  and  Anglo-Saxon  adjective 
plural ;  so  that  thes-e  is  formed  from  this,  as  ffode  ( = 
bold)  is  from^-orf  {  =  bo7ms). 

The  nominative  plural  in  the  Old  English  adjective 
ended  in  e-  ;  as, 

Singular.  Plural. 

If.    F.    iV.  M.    F.    N. 

God,    god,   god,  gode. 

In  Old  English  MSS.  this  plural  in  -e  is  general.  It 
occurs  not  only  in  adjectives  and  pronouns  as  a  regular 
inflection,  but  even  as  a  plural  of  the  genitive  his,  that 
word  being  treated  as  a  nominative  singular ;  so  that 
hise  is  formed  from  his,  as  sui  from  suits,  or  as  eji  might 
have  been  formed  from  ejus  ;  provided  that  in  the  Latin 
lan'Tua'^e  this  last  word  had  been  mistaken  for  a  nominative 
sinn^ular.     The  following  examples  are  Mr.  Guest's. 

1 .  In  these  lay  a  gret  muUitutle  of  sylce  men,  hUnae,  crokid,  and  drye. 
—  Widiffe,  Jon.  r. 

2.  In  all  the  orders  foure  is  non  that  can 
So  much  of  dalliance  and  faire  language, 
He  hadde  ymade  ful  many  a  maniage — 
His  tippet  was  ay  farsed  ful  of  knives, 
And  pinnes  for  to  given  faire  -wives. 

Chau.,  ProL 

3.  And  al  the  cuntre  of  Judce  -Nventc  out  to  him,  and  alle  men  ol 
Jerusalem, —  Wicllffe,  Mark  I 

9 


170  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

4.  lie  gliyuelh  lif  to  allc  men,  and  bretliiug,  and  alle  thingis ;  and 
made  of  von  al  kynde  of  men  to  inliabit  on  al  the  face  of  the  ertlic. — 
Widiffe,  Dcdis  of  Apostlis,  xviL 

5.  That  fadres  souc  Mhich  alio  thinges  MTOugLt ; 
And  all,  that  wrouglit  is  with  a  skilful  thought, 
Tlie  Gost  that  from  the  fader  gan  procede. 
Hath  souled  liem. 

Chau.,  The  Second  Nonnes  Tale. 

6.  And  alle  we  that  ben  in  this  aray 
And  mjikcn  all  this  lamentation, 
We  losten  alle  our  husbondes  at  that  toun. 

Chau.,  The  Knightes  Tales. 

7.  A  ^006?  man  bryngeth  forth  rjodc  thingsis  of  good  tresore. —  Wicliffe, 
Matt.  xii. 

8.  So  every  f/ood  tree  maketh  (jode  fruytis,  but  an  yvel  tree  maketh 
yvel  fruytes.  A  good  tree  may  not  mak  yvel  fruytis,  neither  an  yvel  tree 
may  make  gode  fruytis.  Every  tree  that  maketh  not  good  fruyt  schal  be 
cut  down. —  Wicliffe,  Matt,  vii, 

9.  Men  loveden  more  darknossis  than  light  for  her  werkes  weren  yvele, 
for  ech  man  that  doetli  yvel,  hateth  the  light. —  Wicliffe,  John  iii 

10.  And  othere  seedis  felden  among  thornes  wexen  up  and  strangliden 
hem,  and  othere  seedis  felden  into  good  lond  and  gaven  fruyt,  sum  an 
hundred  fold,  another  sixty  fold,  an  other  thritty  fold,  »tc. —  Wicliffe, 
Matt  xiii. 

11.  Yet  the  while  he  spake  to  the  puple  lo  his  mother  and  hise 
brethren  stonden  withoute  forth. —  Wicliffe,  Mat.  xii. 

12.  And  hiae  disciplis  camen  and  taken  his  body. —  Wicliffe,  Matt, 
xiv. 

13.  "When  thise  Bretons  tuo  were  fled  out  of  this  lond 
lue  toko  his  feaute  of  alle,  <fec. 

Roh  Brunne,  p.  3. 

14.  TIds  is  thilk  disciple  that  bereth  witnessyng  of  these  thingis,  and 
wroot  them. —  Wicliffe,  John  xxL 

15.  Seye  to  us  in  what  powers  thou  doist  these  tlungis,  and  who  is  he 
Uiat  gaf  to  thee  this  power. —  Wicliffe,  Luke  xx. 


DE-MOXSTRATIVE   mOXOUXS. 


171 


§  233.  Those. — Perhaps  the  Anglo-Saxon  ]>a  -svitli  s 
added.  Perhaps  the  \ds  from  J'i^  with  its  power  altered. 
Raskj  in  his  Anglo-Saxon  Grammar,  writes  "  from  yis 
we  find,  in  the  plural,  "^ccs  for  \cis.  From  which  after- 
wards, with  a  distinction  in  signification,  these  and  those.^' 
The  English  form  thei/  is  illustrated  by  the  Anglo-Saxon 
form-  ^age  =  ]>a.  The  whole  doctrine  of  the  forms  in 
question  has  yet  to  assume  a  satisfactory  shape. 

The  present  declension  of  the  demonstrative  pronouns 
is  as  follows  : — 


She. — Defective  iu  the  oblique  cases. 


B. 

He. 

Masc. 

Xeut. 

Fern. 

-A'om. 

He 

It  (from  hit) 

— 

Ace. 

Him 

It 

Her. 

Bat. 

Him 

— 

Her. 

Gen. 

His 

— 

Her. 

Secondary  Gen.  — 

Its 

Hers. 

No  plural  form. 

C. 

L 

That 

Neut. 

Mase. 

Fern. 

Sing.  No7n. 

Tliat 

— 

— 

Ace. 

That 

• .. 

Than  *  tlien*     . 

— 

Dat. 

— 

... 

— 

There.* 

Instrumental 

•  •• 

Thence. 

Plur.  Konu 

... 

, 

They.f 

Ace. 

Them.f 

Gen. 

... 



Their.f 

Secondary  Gen. 

adverbs. 



Theuraf 

*  Used  as 

\  Used  1 

IS  the  plurals  of  he, 

she,  and  it 

172  DEMONSTRATIVE  PEOXOUNS. 

II. 
Singular,  This.  Plural,  Thcsa. 

III. 

Those. 

IV. 
77ie— UuJecUned 


RELATIVE  AND   OTUER  mONOUNS.  173 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

THE    llELATIVr,    IXTERIIOGATIVE,    AND    CEllTAIN    OTHER 
TRONOUNS, 

V  234.  In  tlic  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns, 
?/;/io,  ichat,  who/n,  whose,  we  have,  expressed  by  a  change 
of  form,  a  neuter  gcndci",  lohat  ;  a  dative  case  whom  ;  and 
a  genitive  case,  whose  :  the  true  power  of  the  5  {viz.^  as 
the  sign  of  a  case)  being  obscured  by  the  orthographical 
addition  of  the  e  mute. 

To  these  may  be  added,  1.  the  adverb  why^  originally 
the  ablative  form  hvi  {quo  modo  7  qua  via  ?).  2.  The 
adverb  where,  a  feminine  dative,  like  there.  3.  When, 
a  masculine  accusative  (in  Anglo-Saxon  hicccne),  and 
analogous  to  then. 

The  two  sounds  in  the  Danish  words  Jivl,  hvad,  (fcc, 
and  the  two  sounds  in  the  English,  ivhat,  when  (Anglo- 
Saxon,  hwcct,  hwame)  account  for  the  forms  why  and 
how.  In  the  first  the  w  alone,  in  the  second  the  h  alone, 
is  sounded.  The  Danish  for  why  is  hvi,  pronounced 
vi. 

§  235.  The  following  remarks  (some  of  them  not 
strictly  etymological)  apply  to  a  few  of  the  remaining 
pronouns. 

Same. — Wanting  in  Anglo-Saxon,  where  it  was  re 
placed  by  the  word  ylca,  ylcc.  Probably  derived  from  the 
Norse. 

Self. — In  myself,  thyself,  Jtcrsrlf  oursclces,  yourselves, 


174  OF   RELATIVE,    INTEPwROGATIVE, 

a  substantive  (or  "with  a  substantival  power),  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  genitive  case.  In  himself  and  tJiemselves  an 
adjective  (or  Avith  an  adjectival  power),  and  preceded  by 
an  accusative  case.  Itself  is  equivocal,  since  we  cannot 
Bay  whether  its  elements  are  it  and  self  or  its  and  self ; 
the  5  having  been  dropped  in  utterance.  It  is  very 
evident  thai  cither  the  form  Ukc  himself  or  the  form 
like  tJiyself  is  exceptionable  ;  in  other  words,  that  the 
use  of  the  word  is  inconsistent.  As  this  inconsistency 
is  as  old  as  the  Anglo-Saxons,  the  history  of  the  Avord 
gives  us  no  elucidation.  In  favour  of  the  forms  like 
myself  {self  being  a  substantive),  are  the  following 
facts  : — 

1.  The  plural  word  selves,  a  substantival,  and  not  an 
adjectival  form. 

2.  The  ^Middle  High  German  phrases  min  Up,  din  lip, 
my  body,  thy  body,  equivalent  in  sense  to  myself,  thyself 

3.  The  circumstance  that  if  self  be  dealt  with  as  a 
substantive,  such  phrases  as  my  oivn  self  his  own  great 
self  tfcc,  can  be  used ;  whereby  the  language  is  a 
gainer. 

"  Vox  self  pluralitcr  selves,  quamvis  etiam  pronomen 
a  quibusdam  ccnseatur  (quoniam  ut  plurimum  per  La- 
tinum  ipse  redditur),  est  tamen  plane  nomen  substan- 
tivum,  cui  quidem  vix  aliquod  apud  Latinos  substantirum 
respondet ;  proximo  tamen  accedet  vox  jyersotia  vel 
jjropria  persona  ut  my  self,  thy  self  our  selves,  your 
selves,  <fcc.  {ego  ipse,  tu  .ipse,  iws  ipsi,  vos  ipsi,  (fcc),  ad 
verbum  mca  pcrso7ia,  tua  ]jersona,  6cc.  Fateor  tamen 
himself,  itself  themselves,  vulgo  dici  pro  his-self  its-self 
theirselves  ;  at  (interposito  own)  his  own  self,  &c.,  ipsitis 
propria  persona,  «fcc." — Wallis.  c.  vii. 

4.  The  fact  that  many  persons  actually  say  hisself 
and  theirselves. 


AND   OTHER   PIIOXOUNS.  176 

Whit. — As  in  the  phrase  7ioi  a  loliit.  This  enters  in 
the  compound  pronouns  aught  and  naught. 

One. — As  in  the  phrase  one  docs  so  and  so.  From 
the  French  on.  Observe  that  this  is  from  the  Latin  homo, 
in  Old  French  ho?n,  om.  In  the  Germanic  tongues  man 
is  used  in  the  same  sense  :  man  sagt  =  one  says  =  on  dit. 
One,  like  self  and  otJicr,  is  so  far  a  substantive,  that  it  is 
inflected.  Gen.  sing.  one''s  own  self:  plural,  m,y  wife  and 
little  ones  are  well. 

Derived  pronouns. — A]i)/,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  anig.  In 
Old  High  German  "\vc  have  eimc=any,  and  einac  = 
single.  ■  In  Anglo-Saxon  tinega  means  single.  In  Mid- 
dle High  German  einec  is  always  single.  In  New  High 
German  einig  means,  1.  a  certain  person  {quidajn), 
2.  agreeing ;  einzig,  meaning  single.  In  Dutch  enech 
has  both  meanings.  This  indicates  the  word  an,  one,  as 
the  root  of  the  word  in  question. 

Compound  j)ronouns. —  Which,  as  has  been  already 
stated  more  than  once,  is  most  incorrectly  called  the  neu- 
ter of  wJiO.  Instead  of  being  a  neuter,  it  is  a  compound 
word.  The  adjective  leiks,  like,  is  preserved  in  the  Moeso- 
Gothic  w^ords  ^aleiks  and  missalciks.  In  Old  Hifrh  Ger- 
man  the  form  is  lih,  in  Anglo-Saxon  lie.  Hence  we  have 
INIoeso-Gothic  hveleiks  ;  Old  High  German,  hniilih  ;  An- 
glo-Saxon, huilic  and  hvilc  ;  Old  Frisian,  hwelik  ;  Danish, 
hvilk-en;  German,  weZcA ;  Scoicli,  loh ilk ;  English,  which. 
The  same  is  the  case  with — 

1.  Such. — Moe so-Gothic,  svalciks  ;  Old  High  German, 
solih  ;  Old  Saxon,  suite ;  Anglo-Saxon,  svilc ;  German, 
solch  :  English,  such.  Rask's  derivation  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  sivilc  from  swa-ylc,  is  exceptionable. 

2.  Thilk. — An  old  English  Avord,  found  in  the  pro- 
vincial thalects,  as  thick,  thuck,  thcck,  and  hastily  derived 
by  Tyrwhitt,  Ilitson.  and  Weber,  from  sii  ylca,  is  found 


176  OF   RELATIVE,    INTElUiOGATIVE, 

in  the  follo^ving  forms :    INIocso-Gotliic,   yclcUcs ;    Norse. 
]>vilik7\ 

3.  Ilk. — Found  in  tlic  Scotch,  and  always  preceded 
by  the  article ;  the  ilk,  or  that  ilk,  meaning  the  same. 
In  Anglo-Saxon  this  Avord  is  yda,  preceded  also  by  tho 
article  se  ylca,  se6  ylce,  ]><xt  ylcc.  In  English,  as  seen 
above,  the  word  is  replaced  by  same.  In  no  other  Gothic 
dialect  does  it  occur.  According  to  Grimm,  this  is  no 
simple  -word,  but  a  compoimd  one,  of  which  some  such 
wore  as  el  is  the  first,  and  lie  the  second  element. 

Aught. — In  Moeso-Gothic  is  found  the  particle,  aiv, 
ever,  but  only  in  negative  propositions  ;  ni  {not)  preceding 
it.  Its  Old  High  German  form  is  eo,  io  ;  in  Middle  High 
German,  ie ;  in  New  High  German,  je  ;  in  Old  Saxon, 
io ;  in  Anglo-Saxon,  a ;  in  Norse,  tc.  Combined  with 
this  particle  the  word  ichlt  (thing)  gives  the  following 
forms  :  Old  High  German,  eoiviht ;  Anglo-Saxon,  aviht ; 
Old  Frisian,  meet ;  English  aught,  The  Avord  naught  is 
aught  preceded  by  the  negative  particle. 

JEach. — The  particle  gi  enters,  like  the  particle  in  the 
composition  of  pronouns.  Old  High  German,  eogaliher, 
every  one  ;  eocalih,  all ;  jNIiddle  High  German,  iegelich  ; 
New  High  German,  jegUch ;  Anglo-Saxon,  celc ;  Eng- 
lish, each ;  the  I  being  dropped,  as  in  which  and  such. 
JElc,  as  the  original  of  the  English  each  and  the  Scotch 
ilka,*  must  by  no  means  be  confounded  with  the  word 
ylce,  the  same. 

Every  in  Old  English,  evcrich,  cverech,  evcrilk  one, 
is  celc,  preceded  by  the  particle  ever.  (Grimm.  D.  G. 
iii.  54.) 

Either. — Old  High  German,  eogahuedar ;  Middlo 
High  German,  iegciveder ;  Anglo-Saxon,  ceghva^er, 
(£g^cr  ;  Old  Frisian,  cider. 

'"•'  DiiTereiit  iVoui  ilk. 


.iXD   OTHEK   TEOXOUNS.  177 

IScither. — The  same  Avitli  the  negative  article  in'efixctl. 
Neither  :  either  :  :  naught  :  aught. 

§  23G.  Other,  ^chether. — These  "words,  although  deriv- 
ed forms,  being  simpler  than  some  that  have  preceded, 
might  fairly  have  been  dealt  -with  before.  They  make, 
hoAvever,  a  transition  from  the  present  to  the  succeeding 
chapter,  and  so  find  a  place  here. 

A.  First,  it  may  be  stated  of  them  that  the  idea  which 
they  express  is  not  that  of  one  out  of  many.,  but  that  of 
one  out  of  two. 

1.  In  Sanscrit  there  are  two  forms,'')  kataras,  the 
same  word  as  u-Jicthcr,  meaning  whicJi  ont  of  tico;^')  ka- 
tatJias,  which  out  of  many.  So  also  ekatcras,  one  oi'.t 
of  two ;  ekatamas,  one  out  of  m.any.  In  Greek  the 
Ionic  form  Kor€po<^  (jr6repo<;) ;  in  Latin,  liter,  neuter, 
alter  ;  and  in  Moeso-Gothic,  hvatJiar,  have  the  same  form 
and  the  same  meaning. 

2.  In  the  Scandinavian  language  the  word  anden,  Da- 
no-Saxon,  annar,  Iceland,  corresponds  to  the  English  word 
second,  and  not  the  German  ziveite :  e.  g.,  Ka7'l  den 
Anden,  Charles  the  Second.  Now  anthar  is  the  older 
form  of  other. 

B.  Secondly,  it  may  be  stated  of  them,  that  the  ter- 
mination -er  is  the  same  termination  that  we  find  in  the 
comparative  degree. 

1.  The  idea  expressed  by  the  comparative  degree  is 
the  comparison,  not  of  many  but  of  two  things  ;  tliis  is 
better  than  that. 

2.  In  all  the  Indo-European  languages  where  there 
are  pronouns  m  -ter,  there  is  also  a  comparative  degree  in 
-tcr.     See  next  chapter. 

C.  As  the  Sanscrit  form  kataras  corresponds  with  the 
comparative  degree,  where  there  is  the  comparison  of  two 
things  with  each  other  :  so  the  word  katam as  is  a  super- 

*  9* 


178  OF   RELATIVE   AND   OTHER   PROXOUXS. 

lative  form  ;  and  in  the  superlative  degree  lies  tlic  com- 
parison of  many  tilings  ■with  caeh  other. 

Hence  other  and  whether  (to  which  may  be  added 
either  and  iieitJier)  are  pronouns  "with  the  comparative 
form. 

Other  has  the  additional  peculiarity  of  possessing  the 
plural  form  others.  Hence,  like  self,  it  is,  in  the  strictest 
sense,  a  substantival  pronoun. 


CERTAIX   FORMS   i:S"     ER.  179 


CHArTER  IX. 


ON    CERTAIX    FOKMS     IN    -ER.. 


^  237.  Preparatory  to  the  consideration  of  the  de- 
gvces  of  comparison,  it  is  necessary  to  make  some  remarks 
upon  a  certain  chiss  of  words,  which,  with  considerable 
diifercnccs  of  signification,  all  agree  in  one  fact,  viz.,  all 
terminate  in  -er,  or  t-er. 

1.  Certain  pronouns,  as  el-fh-er,  n-cl-th-o',  whc-th-cr, 
or  o-th-er. 

2.  Certain  prepositions  and  adverbs,  as  ov-er,  7nid-er, 
af-t-er. 

3.  Certain  adjectives,  with  the  form  of  the  compara- 
tive, but  the  power  of  the  positive  degree ;  as  vjrp-cr 
und-er,  inn-cr,  oiit-er,  hind-cr. 

4.  All  adjectives  of  the  comparative  degree  ;  as  reis- 
er, strong-er,  hett-er,  &c. 

Now  what  is  the  idea  common  to  all  these  words,  ex- 
pressed by  the  sign  -er,  and  connecting  the  four  divisions 
into  one  class  ?  It  is  not  the  mere  idea  of  comparison ; 
although  it  is  the  comparative  degree,  to  the  expression 
of  which  the  afiBx  in  question  is  more  particularly  applied. 
Bopp,  who  has  best  generalised  the  view  of  these  forms, 
considers  the  fundamental  idea  to  be  that  of  duality.  In 
the  comparative  degree  we  have  a  relation  between  one 
object  and  some  other  object  like  it,  or  a  relation  between 
two  single  elements  of  comparison :  A  is  u-iser  than  B. 
In  the  superlative  degree  we  have  a  relation  between  one 


180  CERl'AIN   FOItJilS   Ui   -Ell. 

oLject  and  all  others  like  it,  or  a  relation  between  one 
single  and  one  complex  clement  of  comparison :  A  is 
wiser  than  B,  C,  D,  &c. 

"  As  in  comparatives  a  relation  between  two,  and  in 
superlatives  a  relation  betAvecn  mafiy,  lies  at  the  bottom, 
it  is  natural  that  their  suffixes  should  be  transferred  to 
other  words,  whose  chief  notion  is  individuahsed  through 
that  of  duality  or  plurality." — "  Vergleichende  Gram- 
matih,"  §  292,  Eastwick's  and  Wilson's  Translation. 

The  most  important  proofs  of  the  view  adduced  by 
Bopp  are, — 

1.  The  Sanskrit  form  kataras  =  ichicJt  of  two  persons  ? 
is  a  comparative  form ;  whilst  katamas  —  which  of  onore 
than  two  persons  7  a  superlative  form.  Similarly,  ekata- 
ras  ^^one  of  two  jycrsons  ;  ckatamas  =  one  of  more  than 
two  persons. 

2.  The  Greek  forms,  eKuTepo'i  ==  each  (or  either)  out  of 
two  j)ersons  ;  Avhilst  tKaajos  —  each  or  any  oat  of  mure 
tJian  two  persons. 

§  238.  The  more  important  of  the  specific  modifications 
of  the  general  idea  involved  in  the  comparison  of  two  ob- 
jects are, — 

1.  Contrariety  :  as  in  inner,  outer ,  under,  upper,  over. 
In  Latin  the  words  for  right  and  left  end  in  -er, — dexter, 
sinister. 

2.  Choice  in  the  way  of  an  alternative ;  as  either,  nei- 
ther, ichether,  other. 

§  230.  Either,  neither,  other,  whether. — It  has  just 
been  stated  that  the  general  fundamental  idea  common 
to  all  these  forms  is  that  of  choice  betrceen  one  of  two 
objects  in  the  way  of  an  alternative.  Thus  far  the  ter- 
mination -er  in  either,  &c.,  is  the  termination  -er  in  thp 
true  comparatives,  brav-cr,  wis-cr,  6cq.  Either  and 
neither    are   common   pronouns.      Other,   like   one,   is   a 


CERTAIN   FORilS  IX   -ER.  181 

pronoun  capable  of  taking  the  plural  form  of  a  sub- 
stantive {oihei's),  and  also  that  of  the  genitive  case  {the 
others  money,  the  other's  bread).  Whether  is  a  pronoun 
in  the  almost  obsolete  form  ichether  {  =  iL'hicli)  of  ilie  two 
do  you  iircfer,  and  a  conjunction  in  sentences  like  whether 
trill  yon  do  this  or  not!  The  use  of  the  form  others  is 
recent.  '•  They  are  taken  out  of  the  way  as  all  other." 
— Job.     •'  And  leave  their  riches  for  other.'' — Psahus. 


182 


TRE   COMPAKATIVE   DEGREE. 


CHAPTER   X. 


rilE     COMPARATIVE     DEGREE. 


§  240.  There  are  four  leading  facts  here, — 

1.  The  older  form  in  -s.  In  English  we  say  old-er, 
bctt-er,  sweet-er;  in  Old  High  German  they  similarly 
said,  alt-e>o,  bets-rro,  suats-tVo  ;  but  in  Moeso-Gothic  the 
forms  were  ald-?'za,  bat-fzcr,  sut-iza. 

2.  Adverbs  are  susceptible  of  comparison  ;  e.g. — Come 
as  soon  as  yon  can,  but  do  not  come  sooner  than  is  con- 
venient. 

3.  The  Anglo-Saxon  comparison  of  the  adverbs  is 
different  from  that  of  the  adjectives ;  there  being  one 
form  in  -re  and  -este,  another  in  -or  and  -ost  respectively. 
Now  the  first  of  these  was  the  form  taken  by  adjectives  : 
as  se  scearp-re  sweord=^  the  sharper  sword,  and  se  scearp- 
este  sword  =  the  sharpest  sword.  The  second,  on  the 
other  hand,  was  the  form  taken  by  adverbs  :  as,  se  siceord 
scyr^  scearp-or=  the  stvord  cuts  sharper,  and  se  sweord 
scyr^  scearj>ost  =  the  sword  cuts  sharpest. 

4.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  following  words  exhibit  a 
chan";e  of  vowel. 


Positive. 

Comparative. 

Superlative. 

Lang, 

Lengrc, 

Longest 

Long. 

Strang, 

StrcDgre, 

Strengest. 

Strong. 

Geong, 

Gyngre, 

Gyngest. 

Young. 

Sceort, 

Scyrtre, 

Scyrtest. 

Short. 

Heah, 

Hyire, 

Ilylist. 

High. 

Eald, 

YIdre, 

Yklest 

Old. 

THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE.  183 

§  241.  No^Y  the  fourth  of  these  facts  explains  the 
present  forms  Qlder  and  eldest^  the  comparatives  and 
superlative  of  old,  besides  which  there  are  the  regular 
forms  old-er  and  old-est ;  between  which  there  is,  how- 
ever, a  difiference  in  meaning — elder  being  used  as  a  sub- 
stantive, and  having  a  plural  form,  elders. 

§  242.  The  abverbial  forms  in  -or  and  -ost,  as  com- 
pared with  the  adjectival  in  -re,  and  -este  explain  the  form 
rather.  This  rhymes  to /«//<<??•;  the  a  being  full.  Never- 
theless, the  positive  form  is  rather  meaning  quick,  easy 
=  the  classical  root  pah-  in  pdBiog.  What  we  do  quickly 
and  willingly  we  do  jircfcrahly.  Now  if  the  word  rather 
were  an  adjective,  the  vowel  of  the  comparative  would 
be  sounded  as  the  a  in  fate,  as  it  is,  however,  it  is 
abverbial,  and  as  such  is  properly  sounded  as  the  a  in 
father. 

The  difference  between  the  action  of  the  small  vowel 
in  -re,  and  of  the  full  in  -or  effects  this  difference,  since 
o  being  a  full  vowel,  it  has  the  effect  of  making  the  a  full 
also. 

§  243.  The  old  form  in  -5  will  be  considered,  after 
notice  has  been  taken  of  what  may  be  called — 

§  244.  Excess  of  e.vpression. — Of  this  two  samples 
have  already  been  given:  1.  in  words  like  songstress ;  2. 
in  words  like  children.  This  may  be  called  excess  of 
expression  ;  the  feminine  gender,  in  words  like  songstress^ 
and  the  plural  number,  in  words  like  children,  being  ex- 
pressed twice  over.  In  the  vulgarism  hetterer  for  better, 
and  in  the  antiquated  forms  worser  for  loorse,  and  lesser 
for  less,  we  have,  in  the  case  of  the  comparatives,  as  else- 
where, an  excess  of  expression.  In  the  old  High  Ger- 
man we  have  the  forms  betseroro,  meroro,  er'erera  =  better, 
more,  ere. 

§  245.  Better. — Although  in  the  superlative  form  best 


184  THE   GuMrAlLVTiVE    DEGKEE. 

there  is  a  slight  variation  from  the  strict  form  of  that 
degree,  the  word  letter  is  perfectly  regular.  So  far,  then, 
from  truth  arc  the  current  statements  that  the  comparison 
of  the  -words  ^ooc/,  better^  and  best  is  irregular.  The  in- 
flection is  not  irregular,  but  defective.  As  the  statement 
that  applies  to  good,  better,  and  best  applies  to  many 
"words  besides,  it  Avill  be  -well  in  this  place,  once  for  all,  to 
exhibit  it  in  full, 

§  246.  Difference  between  a  sequence  in  logic  and  a 
sequence  in  etymology. — The  ideas  or  notions  oi  thou,  thy, 
thee,  are  ideas  between  which  there  is  a  metaphysical  or 
logical  connexion.  The  train  of  such  ideas  may  be  said 
to  form  a  sequence,  and  such  a  sequence  may  be  called  a 
logical  one. 

The  words  tlion,  thy,  thee,  are  words  between  which 
there  is  a  formal  or  an  etymological  connexion.  A  train 
of  such  words  may  be  called  a  sequence,  and  such  a 
sequence  may  be  called  an  etymological  one. 

In  the  case  of  tliou,  thy,  thee,  the  etymological  sequence 
tallies  Avith  the  logical  one. 

The  ideas  of  I,  my.  and  me  are  also  in  a  logical  se- 
quence :  but  the  forms  /,  my,  and  me  are  not  altogether 
in  an  etymological  one. 

In  the  case  of  TJ  my,  'me,  the  etymological  sequence 
does  not  tally  (or  talhes  imperfectly)  with  the  logical 
one. 

This  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that  between  the 
words  /  and  me  there  is  no  connexion  in  et^^mology. 

It  is  also  only  another  way  of  saying,  that,  in  the 
oblique  cases,  /,  and,  in  the  nominative  case,  me,  are 
defective. 

Now  the  same  is  the  case  with  good,  better,  bad, 
icorse,  &.C.  Good  and  bad  are  defective  in  the  compa- 
rative   and    superlative   degrees ;    better   and   uwrse   aro 


THE  COMrARATIVE  DEGREE,  185 

defective  in  the  positive  ;  ^vLilst  between  g-ood  and  better, 
bad  and  worse,  there  is  a  sequence  in  logic,  but  no 
sequence  in  etymology. 

§  247.  To  return,  however,  to  the  word  better ;  no 
absolute  positive  degree  is  found  in  any  of  the  allied 
languages,  and  in  none  of  the  allied  languages  is  there 
foiuid  any  comparative  form  of  good.  Its  root  occurs 
in  the  following  adverbial  forms :  Moeso-Gothic,  bats ; 
Old  High  German,  pats  ;  Old  Saxon  and  Anglo-Saxon, 
bet;  Middle  High  German,  baz ;  Middle  Dutch,  bat, 
bet. 

§  248.   Worse. — This  word  is  one  of  two  things. 

1.  It  is  a  positive  form  with  a  comparative  sense ;  in 
which  case  s  is  part  of  the  root. 

2.  It  is  a  comparative  degree  from  the  positive  form 
wor-  {vair,-  icir-,  vi/r-),  in  which  case  5  is  the  5  of  the 
Old  Moeso-Gothic  inflexion  preserved  in  this  single 
word. 

§  249.  More. — In  Anglo-Saxon  this  is  7na ;  in  the 
English  of  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  it  is  moe  ;  and  in  cer- 
tain provincial  dialects  it  is  mo,  at  the  present  time. 

Notwithstanding  this,  i.  e.,  the  form  being  positive,  the 
power  of  the  word  has  always  been  comparative,  and 
meant  7nore  rather  than  much,  or  many. 

§  250.  Less. — In  Anglo-Saxon  Iccssa  and  Ices.  Here 
there  is  no  iinequivocal  sign  of  the  comparative  degree ; 
what,  then,  is  the  nature  of  the  word?  Is  it  a  positive 
form  Avith  a  comparative  power  like  moe  7  or  is  it  an 
old  comparative  in  -s7  This  is  midecided.  "What  does  it 
come  from?  Grimm  derives  it  from  the  Moeso-Gothic 
root  lasiv  =  u-eak.  His  doctrine  is  doubtful.  I  cannot 
but  believe  that  it  comes  from  the  same  root  as  litt-le ; 
Avherc  the  old  Frisian  form  litich,  shows  that  the  -I  is  no 
essential  part  of  the  word,  and  the  Danish  form  lllle  gets 


186  THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE. 

rid  of  the  t.     Still   the  word   is  difficult ;    indeed   it   i? 
unexplained. 

§251.  Near,  nearer. — Anglo-Saxon,  neah  ;  compara- 
tive, nearre,  near,  nyr ;  superlative,  nylist,  neJist.  Ob- 
serve, in  the  Anglo-Saxon  positive  and  superlative,  the 
absence  of  the  r.  This  shows  that  the  English  positive 
near  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  comparative  nearre,  and  that  in 
the  secondary  comparative  nearer,  Ave  have  an  excess  of 
expression.  It  may  be,  however,  that  the  r  in  near  is  a 
mere  point  of  orthography,  and  that  it  is  not  pronounced; 
since,  in  the  English  language  the  words  father  and 
farther  are,  for  the  most  part,  pronounced  alike. 

§  252.  Farther. — Anglo-Saxon  feor,  fyrre,  fyrrest. 
The  tli  seems  euphonic,  inserted  by  the  same  process  that 
gives  the  h  in  dvSp6<i,  from  dv7]p  =  man. 

Further. — Confounded  ys'iih  farther,  although  in  reality 
from  a  different  word,  fore.  Old  High  German,  fiirdir  ; 
Xew  High  German,  cicr  vordere  ;  Anglo-Saxon,  fyr^re. 

§  253.  Former. — A  comparative  formed  from  the  su- 
perlative ;  forma  being  such.  Consequently,  an  instance 
of  excess  of  expression,  combined  with  irregularity. 

§  25-4.  In  j\Ioeso-Gothic  spedists  means  last,  and 
spediza  =  later.  Of  the  word  spedists  two  views  may  be 
taken.  According  to  one  it  is  the  positive  degree  with 
the  addition  of  st ;  according  to  the  other,  it  is  the  com- 
parative degree  with  the  addition  only  of  t.  Now,  Grimm 
and  others  lay  down  as  a  rule,  that  the  superlative  is 
formed,  not  directly  from  the  positive,  but  indirectly 
through  the  comparative. 

With  the  exception  of  icorse  and  less,  all  the  English 
comparatives  end  in  -r :  yet  no  superlative  ends  in  -rt,  the 
form  being,  not  wise,  unser,  wisert,  but  wise,  wiser,  wisest. 
This  fact,  without  invalidating  the  notion  just  laid  down, 
gives  additional  importance  to  the  comparative  forms  in  s} 


THE  COMPARATIVE  DEGREE.  187 

since  it  is  from  these,  before  they  have  changed  to  ;',  that 
we  must  suppose  the  superhitives  to  have  been  derivetl. 
The  theory  being  admitted,  we  can,  by  approxunation, 
determine  the  comparative  antiquity  of  the  superhitive 
degree.  It  was  introduced  after  the  establishment  of  the 
comparative,  and  before  the  change  of  -5  into  -r. 


188  TUE   SUrEHLATIVE   DEGREE.- 


CHAPTER   XI. 


THE    SUrEULATIVE    DEGREE. 


§  255.  The  Anglo-Saxon  word  for  Jirst  was /or-m-a. 

The  root  was  /or  =  the  Latin  j^rcs,  the  Greek  tt/jo, 
and  being  the  same  combination  which  occurs  in  fore, 
fore-m-ost,  &c. 

The  ni  was  the  Anglo-Saxon  sign  of  the  superlative 
degree. 

It  is  the  m  in  the  Latin  Avords  2J7'i-7Ji-2is,  inti-m-us, 
exti-m-us,  ulti-^n-iis,  (fcc. 

It  occui'S  even  in  the  Gothic  tongues  ;  in  other  words, 
besides  for-m-a. 

In  short,  m  is  an  old  sign  of  the  superlative  degree ; 
probably  older  than  the  usual  form,  -st,  discussed  in 
§  254.     This  has  some  important  applications. 

§  25G.  Former. — This  is  a  remarkable  word :  it  is  a 
comparative  derived  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  superlative, 
and  its  analysis  I's,  for-m-er,  with  excess  of  viflexion. 

§  257.  Nea-r-est. — Here  the  r  is  no  part  of  the  original 
root,  as  may  be  seen  in  §  251.  It  has  grown  out  of  -ah 
pronounced  as  the  a  in  father.  The  true  forms  are 
positive,  neah ;  comp:irativc,  neah-er  ;  superlative,  ncah- 
est.     Such,  to  a  certain  extent,  is  really  the  case. 

§  258.  Next. — The  superlative  of  nigh,  contracted  from 
itfgh-est.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forms  were  neah,  nyh-st, 
neh-st,  7i7/h-ste.  In  Anglo-Saxon  the  letter  h  was  pro- 
nounced strongly,  and  sounded  like  g-  or  k.     This  fact  is 


THE  SUPEELATIVE  DEGREE.  189 

still  shoAvn  iu  the  spelling ;  as  nigh.  In  the  -n'ord  7icxt 
this  soimd  is  preserved,  slightly  changed  into  that  of  k  ; 
next  —  nek-st. 

§  250.  Upmost,  etc. — The  common  statement  con- 
cerning -words  like  upmost  is,  that  they  are  compound 
•words,  formed  hy  the  addition  of  the  word  most :  this, 
however,  is  more  than  doubtful. 

The  Anglo-Saxon  language  presents  us  with  the  fol- 
lowing forms: — 

Anglo-Saxon.  Unglish. 

Innema  (inn-ema),  Inmost  (in-m-ost). 

Utema  (lit-ma),  Outmost  (out-m-ost). 

SiSema  (siS-ema),  Latest. 

Laetema  (Itet-ema),  Latest 

NiSema  (niS-ema),  Nethermost  (neth-er-m-ost). 

Forma  (for-ma),  Foremost  (fore-m-ost). 

^ftema  (aft-ema),  Aftermost  (aft-er-m-ost). 

Ufema  (uf-ema),  Upmost  (up-m-ost). 

Hindema  (hind-ema),  Hindmost  (hind-m-ost). 

Midema  (mid-ema),  Midmost  (mid-m-ost). 

Now  the  words  in  question  show  at  once,  that,  as 
far  as  they  are  concerned,  the  ?7^  that  appears  in  the 
last   syllable  of  each  haa  nothing  to  do  with  the  word 

9}l0St. 

From  the  words  in  question  there  was  formed,  in 
Anglo-Saxon,  a  regular  superlative  form  in  the  usual 
manner;  viz.,  by  the  addition  of  -st ;  as  afte-m-cst, 
fyr-mrcst,  late-m-est,  si^-m-est,  yfe-m-est,  ute-m-est,  inne- 
m,-est. 

Hence,  in  the  present  English,  the  different  parts  of  • 
the  syllable  most  (in  words  like  upmost)  come  from  dif- 
ferent quarters.  The  m  is  the  m  in  the  Anglo-Saxon 
words  innema,  6cc. ;  whilst  the  -st  is  the  common  sign 
of  the  superlative.  Hence,  in  separating  such  words  as 
midmost  into  its  component  parts,  we  should  writb 


190 


TirE   SUPERLATIVE  DEGREE. 


MiJ-iu-03t 

Ut-m-ost 

Up-most 

l''orc-m-ost 

In-m-ost 

Ilind-m-ost 

O  ut-m-ost 


not 


raid-most 

ut-most. 

up-most. 

fore-most. 

in-most. 

hind-most. 

out-most. 


§  2G0.  In  certain  words,  however,  the  syllable  most 
is  added  to  a  word  already  ending  in  -er  /  that  is,  already 
marked  with  the  sign  of  the  comparative  degree. 


Ifeih-er-m-ost 

Utt-er-m-ost. 

Upp-er-m-ost. 


Hind-er-m-osi 

Out-er-m-ost. 

Inn-er-m-oat 


THE   CAKDINAL   NUMBERS.  191 


CHAPTER   XII. 


THE    CARDINAL    NUMBERS, 


§  261.  Generally  speaking,  the  greater  part  of  the 
cardinal  numbers  are  undeclined.  As  far  as  number 
goes,  this  is  necessary. 

One  is  naturally  and  exclusively  singular. 

Two  is  naturally  dual. 

The  rest  are  naturally  and  exclusively  jilural. 

As  to  the  inflection  of  gender  and  case,  there  is  no 
reason  why  all  the  numerals  should  not  be  as  fully 
inflected  as  the  Latin  unus,  una,  unum,  unius.  It  is  a 
mere  habit  of  our  language  that  they  are  not  so  in 
Enirlish. 


J  92  -  THE   ORDINAL  NUMBEKS. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 


TUE    ORDINAL    NUMBERS. 


§  262.  By  referring  to  §  259,  y^e  see  that  -m  -was  an 
early  sign  of  the  superlative  degree.  This  bears  upon  the 
numerals  seven,  nine,  and  te7i. 

These  are  cardinal  numbers.  Nevertheless,  the 
present  chapter  is  the  proper  place  for  noticing  them. 

There  is  good  reason  for  believing  that  the  final  -n  is 
no  part  of  the  original  root.     Thus, — 

a.  iS(SU-e/i  =  the  Latin  sept-em,  where  the  -m  is  equi- 
valent to  the  -n.  But  in  the  Greek  eTrra,  and  the 
Scandinavian  syv,  and  sju,  neither  -n  nor  -in  occur. 

h.  Ni-ne. — This  same  applies  here.  The  Latin 
form  is  nov-em ;  but  the  Greek  and  Norse  are  iwia 
and  niu. 

c.  Ten. — The  older  form  is  ti-h-un,  in  Latin  de-c-em. 
The  English  -n  is  the  Latin  -in.  Nevertheless,  in  the 
Greek  and  Norse  the  forms  are  Se'/ca  and  iuo. 

§  263.  What  explains  this?  The  following  hypothesis. 
Some  of  the  best  German  authorities  believe,  that  the  -ni, 
expressive  of  the  superlative  degree,  was  also  used  to 
denote  the  ordinal  character  {prdinality)  of  the  numerals  ; 
so  that  the  -m-  in  deci-m-us,  was  the  -qii-  in  idti-?n-us 
and  exti-m-us.     This  is  the  first  step  in  the  explanation. 

§  264.  The  next  is,  to  suppose  that  certain  car- 
dinal  numerals  have  taken  and  retained  the  ordinal 
form  ;  these  beinfr  the — 


THE   OllDIXAL   NUMBERS. 

Latin.  English.  Oreck.  Korsc. 

Sept-em,  sev-cn,  as  opposed  to  the  kirra  sjau, 

Nov-em,  ni-ne         "  "  ivvta,  niu. 

Dec-em  le-n  "  "  S//fct  tiu. 

I  give  no  opinion  as  to  the  accuracy  or  erroneousness 
of  this  view. 

§  265.  Tliir-tccn.,  &c.,  is  three  "with  ten  added,  or 
3  +  10. 

§  26G.  Thir-ty,  6cc.,  is  three  tens  {tJiree  decades),  or 
3  X 10.  In  Mocso-Gothic  we  find  the  -ty  in  the  fuller 
form  tig  =  heK-as  in  Greek. 


10 


194  THE  ARTICLES. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 


THE    ARTICLES, 


§  267.  In  the  generality  of  grammars  the  definite 
article  the,  and  the  indefinite  article  an,  are  the  very 
first  parts  of  speech  that  are  considered.  This  is  excep- 
tionable. So  far  are  they  from  being  essential  to  lan- 
guage, that,  in  many  dialects,  they  are  -wholly  wanting. 
In  Greek  there*  is  no  indefinite,  in  Latin  there  is  neither 
an  indefinite  nor  a  definite  article.  In  the  former  lan- 
guage they  say  avrjp  tl<;  =  a  certain  inan :  in  the  latter 
the  words  jilius  patris  mean  equally  the  son  of  the  fa- 
ther, a  son  of  a  father,  a  so7i  of  the  father,  or  the  son 
of  a  father.  In  Moeso-Gothic  and  in  Old  Norse,  there  is 
an  equal  absence  of  the  indefinite  article ;  or,  at  any  rate, 
if  there  be  one  at  all,  it  is  a  difi"ercnt  word  from  what  oc- 
curs in  Enghsh.  In  these  the  Greek  ri?  is  expressed  by 
the  Gothic  root  sum. 

Now,  since  it  is  very  evident  that,  as  far  as  the  sense 
is  concerned,  the  words  some  man,  a  certain  man,  and  a 
man,  are  much  the  same,  an  exception  may  be  taken  to 
the  statement  that  in  Greek  and  Mocso-Gothic  there  is  no 
indefinite  article.  It  may,  in  the  present  state  of  the 
argument,  be  fairly  said  that  the  words  sum  and  tl<;  are 
pronouns  with  a  certain  sense,  and  that  a  and  an  are  nc 
more ;  consequently,  that  in  Greek  the  indefinite  article  is 
n?,  in  Mocso-Gothic  sum,  and  in  English  a  or  an. 


THE  ARTICLES.  195 

A  distinction,  however,  may  be  made.  In  the  expres- 
sion civTjp  Ti?  {nncer  lis)  =a  certain  man,  or  a  man,  and 
in  the  expression  sum  mann,  the  words  sum  and  xi?  pre- 
serve their  natural  and  original  meaning;  "whilst  in  a 
man  and  an  ox  the  words  a  and  an  are  used  in  a  second- 
ary sense.  These  words,  as  is  currently  known,  are  one 
and  the  same,  the  n,  in  the  form  a,  being  ejected  through 
a  euphonic  process.  They  are,  moreover,  the  same  words 
with  the  numeral  one;  Anglo-Saxon,  an;  Scotch,  ane. 
Now,  between  the  words  a  man  and  one  man,  there  is  a 
difference  in  meaning ;  the  first  expression  being  the  most 
indefinite.  Hence  comes  the  difference  between  the  Eno;- 
lish  and  Moeso-Gothic  expressions.  In  the  one  the  word 
s}im,  has  a  natural,  in  the  other,  the  word  a7i  has  a  second- 
ary power. 

The  same  reasoning  applies  to  the  wo'rd  the.  Com- 
pared with  a  man,  the  words  the  man  are  very  definite. 
Compared,  however,  with  the  words  that  man,  they  are 
the  contrary.  ISTow,  just  as  an  and  a  have  arisen  out  of 
the  numeral  one,  so  has  the  arisen  out  of  the  demonstra- 
tive pronoun  \a,t,  or  at  least  from  some  common  root.  It 
will  be  remembered  that  in  Anglo-Saxon  there  was  a  form 
\e,  undeclined,  and  common  to  all  the  cases  of  all  the 
numbers. 

In  no  language  in  its  oldest  stage  is  there  ever  a  word 
giving,  in  its  primary  sense,  the  ideas  of  a  and  the.  As 
tongues  become  modern,  some  noun  with  a  similar  sense  is 
used  to  express  them.  In  the  course  of  time  a  change  of 
form  takes  place,  corresponding  to  the  change  of  meaning ; 
e.  g.,  one  becomes  an,  and  afterwards  a.  Then  it  is  that 
articles  become  looked  upon  as  separate  parts  of  speech, 
and  are  dealt  with  accordingly.  No  invalidation  of  this 
statement  is  drawn  from  the  Greek  language.  Although 
the  first  page  of  the  etymology  gives  us  6,  ?},  to  (Jio,  hce, 


196  THE   ARTICLES. 

to),  as  the  definite  articles,  tlic  corresponding  page  in  the 
syntax  informs  us,  that,  in  the  ohlcst  stage  of  the  language, 
6  (/to)  =  the,  had  the  power  of  ovto^  [Jtowtos)  =  this. 

The  origin  of  the  articles  seems  uniform.  In  German 
ein,  in  Danish  en,  stand  to  one  in  the  same  relation  that 
an  docs,  l^he  French  tin,  Italian  and  Spanish  uno,  are 
similarly  related  to  unus^one. 

And  as,  in  English,  the^  in  German  der,  in  Danish 
den,  come  from  the  demonstrative  pronouns,  so,  in  the 
classical  languages,  are  the  French  le,  the  Italian  il  and 
loj  and  the  Spanish  cl,  derived  from  the  Latin  demonstra- 
tive ille. 

In  his  "  Outlines  of  Logic,"  the  present  writer  lias 
given  reasons  for  considering  the  word  7io  (as  in  no  man) 
an  article. 

That  the,  in  expressions  like  all  the  more,  all  the  bet- 
ter, (Sec,  is  no  articb,  has  already  been  shown. 


DOimUTIVES  AND  AUGMENTATIVES.  197 


CHAPTER    XV. 

DIMINUTIVES,    AUGMENTATIVES,    AND    PATRONYMICS. 

S  2G8.  Compared  with  tlic  "vvorcls  lamb,  man,  and 
hill,  the  "works  lamhJcin,  manniJcin,  and  hillock  convey 
the  idea  of  comparative  smaUness  or  diminution.  Now, 
as  the  word  hillock  =a  little  hill  differs  inform  from  hill, 
wc  have  in  English  a  series  of  diminutive  forms,  or  di- 
?niniitives. 

The  English  diminutives  may  be  arranged  according 
to  a  variety  of  principles.     Amongst  others  : 

1.  According'  to  their  form. — The  word  hillock  is  de- 
rived from  hill,  by  the  addition  of  a  syllable.  The  word 
tip  is  derived  from  top,  by  the  change  of  a  vowel. 

2.  According  to  their  meaning. — In  the  Avord  hillock 
there  is  the  simple  expression  of  comparative  smallness 
in  size.  In  the  word  doggie  for  dog,  lassie  for  lass,  the 
addition  of  the  -ie  makes  the  word  not  so  much  a  dimi- 
nutive as  a  term  of  tenderness  or  endearment.  The 
idea  of  smallness,  accompanied,  perhaps,  with  that  of 
neatness,  generally  carries  with  it  the  idea  of  approba- 
tion ;  hence,  the  word  clean  in  English,  means,  in  Ger- 
man, little  —  kleine.  The  feeling  of  protection  which  is 
extended  to  small  objects  engenders  the  notion  of  endear- 
ment. 

§  269.  The  Greek  word  /ie/wcrt?  [jneiosis)  means  dimi- 
nution ;  the  Greek  word  v7roK6pia/.ca  (Jiijpokorisma)  means 


198  DnriNUTLYES,   AUG^rENTATIVES. 

an  endearing  expression,  llcncc  wc  get  names  for  the 
two  kinds  of  diminutives ;  viz.,  the  term  fneiotic  for  the 
true  diminutives,  and  the  term  hijpocoristic  for  the  di- 
minutives of  endearment. 

3.  According  to  their  hislorical  origin.  The  syllabic 
-ock,  as  in  hillocl:,  is  of  Anglo-Saxon  and  Gothic  origin. 
The  -ct,  as  in  lancet,  is  of  French  and  classical  origin. 

4.  According  as  they  affect  proper  names,  or  com- 
mon names. — Hawkin,  Pcrkin,  Wilkin,  &c.  In  these 
words  we  have  the  diminutives  of  Hal,  Peter,  Will,  <fcc. 

§  270.  The  diminutive  forms  of  Gothic  origin  are  the 
first  to  be  considered. 

1.  Those  formed  hij  a  change  of  von- el. —  Tip,  ivom. 
top.  The  relation  of  the  feminine  to  the  masculine  is 
allied  to  the  ideas  conveyed  by  many  diminutives.  Hence 
in  the  word  kit,  from  cat,  it  is  doubtful  whether  there  be 
meant  a  female  cat  or  a  little  cat.  Kid  is  a  diminutive 
form  of  goat. 

2.  Those  formed  hy  tlie  addition  of  a  letter  or  letters. 
— Of  the  diminutive  characteristics  thus  formed  the  com- 
monest, beginning  from  the  simpler  forms,  are 

le. — Almost  peculiar  to  the  Lowland  Scotch  ;  as  dad- 
die,  lassie,  minnie,  wifie,  mousie,  doggie,  hoatie,  &.c. 

Ock. — Bullock,  hillock. 

Kin. — Lainbkin,  mannikin,  ladikin,  (fcc.  As  is  seen 
above,  common  in  proper  names. 

En. — Chicken,  kitten,  from  cock,  cat.  The  notion  of 
diminution,  if  indeed  that  be  the  notion  originally  con- 
veyed, lies  not  in  the  -en,  but  in  the  vowel.  In  the  word 
chicken,  from  cock,  observe  the  effect  of  the  small  vowel 
on  the  c. 

The  consideration  of  words  like  duckling,  and  gosling. 
is  purposely  deferred. 

The  chief  diminutive  of  classical  oriian  is — 


1 


AND   PATRONYMICS.  199 

Et,  as  in  trumpet^  lancet,  pocket ;  the  word  poclc,  as 
\n  meal-pock  =  a  tneal-bag^h&mg  found  in  the  Scottish. 
From  tlic  French  -ette,  as  in  calssettc,  poidette. 

The  forms  -rcl,  as  in  cockerel,  j)ickerel,  and  -let,  as  in 
streamlet,  require  a  separate  consideration.  The  first  has 
nothing  to  do  with  tlic  Italian  forms  acqncrella  and  coser- 
fUa — themselves,  perhaps,  of  Gothic,  rather  than  of  clas- 
sical origin. 

In  the  Old  High-German  there  are  a  multitude  of  di- 
minutive forms  in  -el ;  as  oiiga  =  an  eye,  ongili=  a  little 
eye  ;  Ucd=  a  song,  liedcl=  a  little  song.  This  indicates 
the  nature  of  Avords  like  cockerel. 

Even  in  English  the  diminutive  power  of  -cl  can  be 
traced  in  the  following  words  : — 

Soare  =  a  deer  in  its  third  year.  Sor-rel — a  deer  in  its 
second  year. — See  "  Love's  Labour  Lost,"  with  the  note. 

Tiercel  —  a  small  sort  of  hawk,  one-third  less  {tierce] 
than  the  common  kind. 

Kantle  =  small  corner,  from  cant  =  a  corner. — "  Hen- 
ry IV." 

Hurdle ;  in  Dutch  horde ;  German,  hurdc.  Hord- 
ing, without  the  -/,  is  used  in  an  allied  sense  by  builders 
in  English. 

In  the  words  in  point  we  must  assume  an  earlier  form, 
cocker  and  jnker,  to  which  the  diminutive  form  -el  is 
afExed.  If  this  be  true,  we  have,  in  English,  repre- 
sentatives of  the  diminutive  form  -cl  so  common  in  the 
High  Germanic  dialects.  Wolfer  =  a  ivolf,  hunker  =  a 
haunch,  Jlitcher  =■  a  flitch,  teamcr  =  a  team,  fresher  =  a 
frog, — these  are  noi-th  country  forms  of  the  present 
English. 

The  termination  -let,  as  in  streamlet,  seems  to  bo 
double,  and  to  consist  of  the  Gothic  diminutive  -I,  and  the 
French  diminutive  -t. 


200  DIMINUTIVES,   AUGMENTATIVES, 

§271.  Aug)uc)it(itivcs. — Compared  with  capcllo'=-a 
haf,  tlic  Italian  Mord  capellone  =  a  great  licit,  is  an  aug- 
mentative. The  augmentative  forms,  pre-eminently  com- 
mon in  the  Italian  language,  often  carry  Avith  thein  a  de- 
preciating sense. 

The  termination  -rd  (in  Old  High  German,  -hart),  as 
in  dniukard,  braggart,  laggard,  stinkard,  carries  "svith 
it  this  idea  .of  depreciation.  In  buzzard,  and  reynard, 
the  name  of  the  fox,  it  is  simply  augmentative.  In  wiz- 
ard, from  witch,  it  has  the  power  of  a  masculine  form. 

The  termination  -rd,  taken  from  the  Gothic,  appears 
in  the  modern  lan<;uafTCS  of  classical  orijcin :  French,  vie- 
illard;  Spanish,  codardo.  From  these  we  get,  at  second- 
hand, the  word  coward. 

The  word  sweetheart  is  a  derived  word  of  this  sort, 
rather  than  a  compound  word;  since  in  Old  High  Ger- 
man and  Middle  High  German,  we  have  the  correspond- 
ing form  liebhart.  Now  the  form  for  heart  is  in  German 
not  hart,  hut  hcrz. 

Words  like  braggadocio,  trombone,  ballooti,  being 
words  of  foreign  origin,  prove  nothing  as  to  the  further 
existence  of  augmentative  forms  in  English. 

§  2T2. — Patronymics. — In  the  Greek  language  the 
notion  of  lineal  descent,  in  other  words,  the  relation  of  the 
son  to  the  father,  is  expressed  by  a  particular  termination; 
as  ni]\ev^  (Peleus),  UTfX.eihii'?  {Peleidccs),  the  son  of  Pe- 
leus.  It  is  very  evident  that  this  mode  of  expression  is 
very  diiferent  from  either  the  English  form  Johnson  =  tJic 
son  of  Jolin,  or  the  Gaelic  MacDonald=  the  son  of  Do- 
nald. In  these  last-named  words,  the  words  son  and  Mac 
mean  the  same  thing ;  so  that  Johnsoji  and  MacDonald 
are  not  derived  but  compoimd  words.  This  Greek  way 
of  expressing  descent  is  peculiar,  and  the  words  wherein 
it   occurs   are   classed  together   by   the    peculiar  name 


AND   PATRONYMICS.  201 

patronymic  ;  from  yja^rcr  =  a  father,  and  onoma  =  a 
naine. 

Is  tlierc  anything  in  English  corresponding  to  the 
Greek  patronymics  ? 

Not  in  the  present  English  1  There  -was,  however,  in 
the  Anglo-Saxon. 

In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  terminations  -ing  is  as  truly 
patronymic  as  -tS?;?  in  Greek.  In  the  Bible-translation 
the  son  of  Elisha  is  called  Elising.  In  the  Anglo-Sax- 
on Chronicle  occur  such  genealogies  as  the  following: — 
Ida  iDccs  Eopping,  Eoppa  Esing,  Esa  Inging,  Inga 
Angcnviting,  Angenvit  Alocing,  Aloe  Beonocing,  Beo- 
7I0C  Branding,  Brand  Bccldagiiig,  BaXdccg  Ycdening, 
Vdden  Fri^owidfing,  Fri^oiDulf  Finning,  Finn  God- 
xcidfing,  Godwnlf  Geating  =  Ida  was  the  son  of  Eoppa, 
Eoppa  of  Esa,  Esa  of  Inga,  Inga  of  Angenvit,  Angenvit 
of  Aloe,  Aloe  of  Beonoc,  Beonoc  of  Brand,  Brand  of  Bael- 
dneg,  Bscldasg  of  Woden,  Woden  of  Fri^owulf,  Fri^owulf 
of  Finn,  Finn  of  Godwulf,  Godwulf  of  Geat. — In  Greek, 
"I8a  rjv  '£o7r7ret'8r;9,  "EoTTira  'H(X€i8i]<;,  "Hera  ^Ijyei8}]<;, 
"lyya  'A'y'yev(f)LTei8r]'^,  Scc  In  the  plural  number  these 
forms  denote  the  race  of;  as  Scyldingas  ==the  tScyldings, 
or  the  race  of  Scyld,  (fcc.  Edgar  Atheling  means  Edgar 
of  the  race  of  the  nobles. 


10* 


202  GENTILE   FOiniS. 


CIIArTEPv  XVL 


GENTILE    FORMS. 


§  273.  The  only  AvorJ  in  the  present  English  that  re- 
(]^uires  explanation  is  the  name  of  the  principality  Wales. 

1.  The  form  is  plia^al,  ho-ROver  much  the  meaning 
may  be  singular ;  so  that  the  -s  in  Wales  is  the  -5  in 
fathers,  (fcc, 

2.  It  has  gro'wn  out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  from  ivealhas 
=foreigncrs,  from  tcealh  =  a  foreigner ,  the  name  by 
which  the  Welsh  are  spoken  of  by  the  Germans  of  Eng- 
land, just  as  the  Italians  are  called  Welsh  by  the  Ger- 
mans of  Germany  ;  and  just  as  loal-nuts  =foreign  nuis, 
or  nuces  Gallice.  JVelsh=weall-isc=  foreign,  and  is  a 
derived  adjective. 

3.  The  transfer  of  the  name  of  the  people  inhabiting 
a  certain  country  to  the  country  so  inhabited,  was  one  of 
the  commonest  processes  in  both  Anglo-Saxon  and  Old 
English. 


CONXEXIOX  BETWEEN  NOUN  AJSD  VERB.         203 


CnAPTER   XVII. 

ox    THE    CONNEXION    BETWEEN    THE    NOUN    AND    VERB,    AND     ON 
THE    INFLECTION    OF    THE    INFINITIVE    MOOD. 

§  274.  In  order  to  understand  clearly  tlie  use  of  the 
so-called  infinitive  mood  in  English,  it  is  necessary  to  bear 
in  mind  two  facts,  one  a  matter  of  logic,  the  other  a  mat- 
ter of  his  tor]/. 

In  the  way  of  logic,  the  difference  between  a  noun  and 
a  verb  is  less  marked  than  it  is  in  the  way  of  graminar. 

Grammatically,  the  contrast  is  considerable.  The  in- 
flection of  nouns  expresses  the  ideas  of  sex  as  denoted  by 
gender,  and  of  relation  in  place  as  denoted  by  cases.  That 
of  verbs  rarely  expresses  sex,  and  never  relations  in  place. 
On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  expresses  what  no  noun 
ever  does  or  can  express ;  e.  g.,  the  relation  of  the  agency 
to  the  individual  speaking,  by  means  of  person  ;  the  time 
in  which  acts  take  place,  by  means  of  tense  ;  and  the  con- 
ditions of  their  occurrence,  by  means  of  mood. 

The  idea  of  number  is  the  only  one  that,  on  a  super- 
ficial view,  is  common  to  these  two  important  parts  of 
speech. 

h  2T5.  Logically,  however,  the  contrast  is  inconsidera- 
ble. A  noun  denotes  an  object  of  which  either  the  senses 
or  the  intellect  can  take  cognizance,  and  a  verb  does  no 
more.  To  niove  =  motion,  to  rise  =  rising,  to  err  = 
^rror,  to  forgive  ==  forgiveness.  The  only  difference  be- 
tween the  two  parts  of  speech  is  this,  that,  whereas  a  noun 


204    COXXEXIOX  BETWEEN  NOUK  AND  VEKB. 

may  express  any  object  -wliatcver,  verbs  can  only  express 
those  o])jects  which  consist  in  an  action.  And  it  is  this 
superadded  idea  of  action  that  superadds  to  the  verb  the 
phenomena  of  tense,  mood,  person,  and  voice  ;  in  other 
words,  the  phenomena  of  conjugation. 

§  276.  A  noun  is  a  word  capable  of  declension  only. 
A  verb  is  a  word  capable  of  declension  and  conjugation 
also.  The  foct  of  verbs  being  declined  as  well  as  conjugat- 
ed must  be  remembered.  The  participle  has  the  declen- 
sion of  a  noun  adjective.,  the  infinitive  inood  the  declension 
of  a  ?wun  substantive.  Gerunds  and  stipincs,  in  lan- 
guages where  they  occur,  are  only  names  for  certain 
cases  of  the  verb. 

§  277.  Although  in  all  languages  the  verb  is  equally 
capable  of  declension,  it  is  not  equally  declined.  The 
Greeks,  for  instance,  used  forms  like 

tJ»  (p^oviiv  =  invidia. 
Towp^ovelv  ==  invidice. 
tV  Ti^  (p^ov(1v  =  in  invidia. 

§  278.  Keturning,  however,  to  the  illustration  of  the 
substantival  character  of  the  so-called  infinitive  mood,  we 
may  easily  see — 

a.  That  the  name  of  any  action  may  be  used  without 
any  mention  of  the  agent.  Thus,  we  may  speak  of  the 
simple  fact  of  wal/dng  or  moving^  independently  of  any 
specification  of  the  walker  or  mover. 

/3.  That,  when  actions  are  spoken  of  thus  indefinitely, 
the  idea  of  either  person  or  number  has  no  place  in  the 
conception ;  from  which  it  follows  that  the  so-called  infini- 
tive mood  must  be  at  once  impersonal,  and  without  the  dis- 
tinction of  singular,  dual,  and  plural. 

7.  That,  nevertheless,  the  ideas  of  time  and  relation 
in  space  have  place  in  the  conception.     We  can  think  of 


COXNEXIOX  BETWEEN  NOUN  AND  VERB.    205 

a  person  being  i/i  the  act  of  striking  a  blow,  of  bis  leaving 
been  in.  the  act  of  striking  a  bloio,  or  of  bis  being  about  to 
be  in  the  act  of  striking  a  blow.  We  can  also  tbink  of  a 
person  being  in  the  act  of  doing  a  good  action^  or  of  bis 
being //"ow  the  act  of  doing  a  good  action. 

§  279.  Tbis  bas  been  written  to  sbow  tbat  verbs  of 
binguagcs  in  general  arc  as  naturally  declinable  as  nouns. 
Wbat  follows  will  sbow  tbat  tbe  verbs  of  tbe  Gotbic 
languages  in  particular  were  actually  declined,  and  tbat 
fragments  of  tbis  declension  remain  in  tbe  present  Englisb. 

Tbe  inflection  of  tbe  verb  in  its  impersonal  (or  in- 
finitive state)  consisted,  in  its  fullest  form,  of  tbree  cases, 
a  nominative  (or  accusative),  a  dative,  and  a  genitive. 
Tbe  genitive  is  put  last,  because  its  occurrence  in  tbe 
Gotbic  languages  is  tbe  least  constant. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  tbe  nominative  (or  accusative)  ended 
in  -an^  witb  a  single  n. 

Liifiaa    ==     to  love    =     aniare. 
Bternan  =     to  burn  ==    urere. 
fSyllan     =     to  give    =     dare. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  tbe  dative  of  tbe  infinitive  verb  ended 
in  -nne.  and  was  preceded  bj  tbe  preposition  to. 

To  lufieiine     =     ad  amandum. 
To  bairneune  ==     ad  irrendum 
To  syllannc    =     ad  dandum. 

Tbe  genitive,  ending  in  -es,  occurs  only  in  Old  Higb 
German  and  ]SIodern  Higb  German,  j)l^sannes,  weinjienes. 

§  280.  Witb  tbese  preliminaries  we  can  take  a  clear 
view  of  tbe  Englisb  infinitives.  Tbcy  exist  under  two 
forms,  and  are  referable  to  a  double  origin. 

1.  Tbe  indepcndeyit  form. — This  is  used  after  the 
words  can.  may,  shall,  will,  and  some  others,  as,  /  can 
speak,  I  may  go,  I  shall  come,  I  will  move.     Here  there 


206         CONNEXION  BETWEEN  NOUN  AND  VERB. 

is  no  preposition,  and  the  origin  of  the  infinitive  is  from 
the  form  in  -an. 

2.  The  ])}'cpositional  form. — Tliis  is  used  after  the 
majority  of  English  verbs,  as,  /  wish  to  speak,  1  mean  to 
go,  I  intend  to  come,  I  determine  to  move.  Here  we 
have  the  preposition  to  and  the  origin  of  the  infinitive  is 
from  the  hxva'-nne. 

§  281.  Expressions  like  to  err  =  error,  to  forgive  == 
forgiveness,  in  lines  like 

"  To  err  is  human,  to  forgive  divine," 

are  very  remarkable.  They  exhibit  the  phenomena  of  a 
nominative  case  having  grown  not  only  out  of  a  dative  but 
out  of  a  dative  plus  its  governing  preposition. 


DERIVED  VERBS. 


207 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 


ON    DERIVED    VERBS. 


§  282.  Of  the  divisions  of  verbs  into  active  and 
passive,  transitive  and  intransitive,  unless  there  be  an 
accompanying  change  o'i  form,  etymology  takes  no  cog- 
nisance. The  forces  of  the  auxiliary  verbs,  and  the 
tenses  to  -which  they  are  equivalent,  are  also  points  of 
syntax  rather  than  of  etymology. 

Four  classes,  however,  of  dericcd  verbs,  as  opposed  to 
shnple,  especially  deserve  notice. 

I.  Those  ending  in  -c?i  ;  as  soften,  icJi'itcn,  strengthen, 
<fcc.  Here  the  -cji  is  a  derivational  affix  ;  and  not  a  repre- 
sentative of  the  Anglo-Saxon  infinitive  form  -an  (as  hffian, 
b(crnan  =  to  love,  to  burn),  and  the  Old  English -e7^  (as 
tcllen,  Inven). 

II,  Transitive  verbs  derived  from  intransitives  by  a 
change  of  the  vowel  of  the  root. 


FrimiUve  Intransitlv 
Rise 
Lie 
Sit 
FaU 
Drink 


c  Fort)i. 


Derived  Tran&itive  Form, 
Raise. 
Lay. 
Set. 
Fell. 
Drencli. 


In  Anglo-Saxon  thei^c  words  were  more  numerous  than 
tlicy  are  at  present. 


208 


DERIVED  VERBS. 


Iiilrans.  Infinitive. 
Yrnan,  to  run 
Byrnan,  to  hum 
Drincan,  to  drink 
Siocan,  to  sink 
Liegan,  to  lie 
Sittan,  to  sit 
Drifan,  to  drift 
Feallan,  to  fall 
Weallan,  to  boil 
Fleogan,  tofiy 
Beogan,  to  bow 
Faran,  to  go 
Wacan,  to  wake 


Tranx.  Infinitive. 
yErnan,  to  make  to  run. 
Bairnan,  to  make  to  burn. 
Drenoan,  to  drench. 
Seiican,  to  make  to  sink. 
Lecgan,  to  lay. 
Settan,  to  set. 
Drajfan,  to  drive. 
Fyllau,  to  fell. 
Wyllan,   to  make  to  boil. 
A-fligan,  to  put  to  flight. 
Bigan,  to  bend. 
Feran,  to  convey. 
Weccan,  to  waken. 


All  these  intransitivcs  form  their  praaterite  by  a  change 
of  vowel,  as  sink,  sank  ;  all  the  transitives  by  the  addition 
of  d  or  t,  as  sell,  selTd. 

III.  Verbs  dei-ived  from  nouns  by  a  change  of  accent ; 
as  to  survey,  from  a  survey. 


Kouns. 

Verbs. 

Xouns. 

Verb^ 

A'bsent 

absent. 

Contrast 

contrast 

A'bstract 

abstract. 

Converse 

converse. 

A'cCCDt 

accent 

Convert 

convert 

A'ffix 

affix. 

Descant 

descant 

Augment 

augment. 

Desert 

desert 

Colleague 

colleague. 

Digest 

digest 

Compact 

compact. 

E'ssay 

essd,y. 

Compound 

compound 

E'xtract 

extrdct 

Compress 

compress. 

Ferment 

fei-m6nt 

Concert 

concert. 

Frequent 

frequent 

Concrete 

concrete. 

I'mport 

import. 

Conduct 

conduct 

I'ncense 

inc6nse. 

Confine 

confine. 

I'nsult 

insult 

Confiict 

conflict. 

O'bject 

object 

Conserve 

conserve. 

Perfume 

perfume. 

Consort 

consort. 

Permit 

permit 

Contract 

contract. 

Prefix 

prefix. 

DERIVED   VERBS. 


209 


I'lemise 

Pr6sag.c 

rr6sent 

Produco 

Project 

Protest 

Rebel 


Verbs. 
premise. 
presAge. 
present, 
produce, 
project, 
protest, 
rebel. 


JVoims. 

Verbs. 

Record 

rec6rd. 

Refuse 

refuse. 

Subject 

subject. 

Survey 

survey. 

Torment 

torment. 

Transfer 

transfer. 

Transport 

transport. 

Walker  attribixtcs  the  change  of  accent  to  the  influence  of 
the  participial  termination  -iitg-.  All  words  thus  aiTected 
are  of  foreign  origin. 

lY.  Verbs  formed  from  nouns   by  changing  a   fmal 
sharp  consonant  into  its  corresponding  flat  one  ;  as, 

27ic  use  

2'he  breatli        

2'Ac  cloth  


to  use, 

pronounced  uzo. 

to  breatlie 

—           brcadhe. 

to  clothe 

—          clodha. 

210  ox  TUE  PEllSONS. 


CHAPTER    XIX. 


ON   THE    PERSONS. 


§  283.  Compared  "vvitli  the  Latin,  tlie  Greek,  tlie 
Mocso-Gotliic,  and  almost  all  tlie  ancient  languages, 
there  is,  in  English,  in  respect  to  the  persons  of  the  verhs, 
but  a  A'crj  slight  amount  of  inflection.  This  may  be  seen 
by  comparing  the  English  word  call  with  the  Latin 
voco. 


Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

1.  Voc-o 

Yoc-amus. 

CaU 

Call 

2.  Voc-as 

Yoc-ads. 

Call-est 

CaU. 

3.  Voc-at 

Yoc-a7it. 

■  *  CaU-eth 

CaU. 

Here  the  Latins  have  different  forms  for  each  diffei" 
ent  person,  whilst  the  English  have  forms  for  two  only ; 
and  even  of  these  one  {callesi)  is  becoming  obsolete. 
"With  the  forms  voc-o,  \oc-amiis,  \oc-atis,  \oc-ant,  there  is, 
in  the  current  English,  nothing  correspondent. 

In  the  word  am,  as  compared  with  a?'e  and  art,  we 
hnd  a  sign  of  the  first  person  singular. 

In  the  old  forms  tcllcn,  iccren,  <fcc.,  we  have  a  sign  of 
the  plural  number. 

§  284.  In  the  Modern  English,  the  Old  English,  and 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  the  peculiacities  of  our  personal  inflec- 
tions are  very  great.  This  may  be  seen  from  the  following 
tables  of  comparison  : — 

*  Or  call  s. 


ox   THE    TERSOXS. 


211 


Present  Tense,  Indicative  Mood. 

Maeso- Gothic. 


Singidar. 
Plural. 

1st  person.             2nd  person. 
Sokja                   Sokeis 
Sokjain                Sokci}) 

Old  High  German. 

3rJ  person. 
Soke!]? — seek. 
Sokjand. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

Prennu                Piennis 
Prennamca          Prouuat 

Icelandic. 

Prennit — hnrtu 
Prennant. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

Kalla                   Kall-ir 
XoUum                Ka]li> 

Old  Saxon. 

Kallar — call. 
Kalla. 

Singidar. 
Plural. 

Sokju                   Sokis 
SokjaJ                 Sokjad 

Anglo-Sa.Ton. 

Sokld — seek. 
Sokjad. 

Singidar. 
Plural. 

Lufige         '         Lufast 
LufiaS                 LufiaS 

Old  English. 

LufaS. 
LufiaS. 

Singvlai 
Plural. 

Love                    Lovest 
Lovea                  Loven 

Loveth. 
Loven. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

Modern  English. 

Love                    Lovest 
Love                   Love 

Loveth  (or  Loves). 
Love. 

§  285.  Herein  remark  ;  1.  tlic  Anglo-Saxon  addition 
of  t  in  the  second  person  singular ;  2.  the  identity  in  form 
of  the  three  persons  of  the  plural  number  ;  3.  the  change 
of  -a^  into  -en  in  the  Old  English  plural ;  4.  the  total 
absence  of  plural  forms  in  the  INIodern  English ;  5.  the 
change  of  the  th  into  s,  in  loveth  and  loves.  These  are 
points  bearing  especially  upon  the  history  of  the  English 


212  ox  THE  pii:rsoxs. 

persons.     The  following  points  indicate  a  more  general 
question  : 

1.  The  full  form  ])rcn?ta77ics  in  the  newer  Old  High  Ger- 
man, as  compared  with  sokjam  in  the  old  Moeso-Gothic. 

2.  The  appearance  of  the  r  in  Icelandic. 

3.  The  difference  between  the  Old  Saxon  and  the 
Anglo-Saxon  in  the  second  person  singular;  the  final  t 
being  absent  in  Old  Saxon. 

§  28G.  The  perso}i  in  -t. — The  forms  art,  wast,  wcrt, 
sJialt,  wilt,  or  ar-t,  was-t,  wcr-t,  shal-t,  wil-t,  are  re- 
markable. Here  the  second  person  singular  ends,  not  in 
-st,  but  in  t.  The  reason  for  this  is  to  be  sought  in  the 
Mocso-Gothic  and  the  Icelandic. 

In  those  languages  the  form  of  the  person  changes 
with  the  tense,  and  the  second  singular  of  the  praeterite 
tense  of  one  conjugation  is,  not  -s,  but  -t ;  as  Moeso- 
Gothic,  svdr  =  I  swore,  sv6rt  =  thoii  swarest,  graip  =  I 
griped,  graipt^thou  gi'ipedst ;  .Icelandic,  hrannt  =  thou 
bur  nest,  gaft  =  thou  gavest.  In  the  same  languages  ten 
verbs  are  conjugated  like  preterites.  Of  these,  in  each 
language,  skal  is  one. 


Moiso-  Gothic. 

Sln(j7dar. 

Dual. 

Plural. 

1.  Skal 

Skulu 

Skiilum. 

2    Skalt 

Skuluts 

Skulu>. 

3.  Skall 

Skuliits 
Icelandic. 

Skulun. 

Sbif/idar. 

Plural. 

1. 

SkaU 

Skulum. 

2. 

Skalt 

SkuluS. 

3. 

Skal 

i^kulu. 

§  287.   Thou  sjiakest,  thou  hrakest,  thou  sungest.* — 

*  Thou  sanrjest,  thou  dranl-rst,  «tc. — For  a  reason  given  in  tlie  sequel, 
these  foims  arc  less  exception.iLlc  than  snngest,  drwikest,  Ac. 


ON  THE   PERSONS.  213 

In  these  forms  there  is  a  slight  though  natural  anomaly. 
They  belong  to  the  class  of  verbs  •which  form  their  prai- 
terite  by  changing  the  vowel  of  the  present ;  as  sing; 
sang,  &.C.  Now,  all  -words  of  this  sort  in  Anglo-Saxon 
formed  their  second  singular  pra^terite,  not  in  -st,  but  in 
-e  ;  as  ]>ufunde=  thoiifoiaidcst,  ]>u  sunge=  thon  sungest. 
The  English  termination  is  derived  from  the  present. 
Observe  that  this  applies  only  to  the  pricterites  formed  by 
changing  the  vowel.  Thou  love(Pst  is  Anglo-Saxon  as 
well  as  English,  viz.,  }>«  liifodest. 

§  288.  In  the  northern  dialects  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
the  -^  of  plurals  like  lufici^  =  we  love  becomes  -s.  In  the 
Scottish  this  change  was  still  more  prevalent : 

Tlie  Scottes  come  that  to  this  day 
Havys  and  Scotland  haldyn  ay. 

Wintoun,  11,0,  T3. 

James  I.  of  England  ends  nearly  all  his  plurals  in  -s. 


214  NUMBERS   OF   VEKBS. 


CHAPTER   XX. 


ON    THE    NUMBERS    OF    VERBS. 


§  289.  As  compared  -witli  the  present  plural  forms,  we 
love,  ye  love,  tJicij  love,  the  Anglo-Saxons  had  the  truly 
plural  forms,  we  liifia^,  ge  lufiati,  hi  lufia^.  The  Old 
English  also  had  a  true  plural  inflection  ive  loven,  ye  loven, 
they  loven.  The  present  English  wants  both  the  form  in 
-en,  and  the  form  in  ab.  In  other  •words,  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  and  the  Old  English  have  a  plural  j)Grsonal  char- 
acteristic, whilst  the  IModern  English  has  nothing  to  cor- 
respond with  it. 

§  290.  In  the  forms  liif-ia^,  and  lov-en,  the  change 
from  singular  to  plural  is  made  by  adding  a  syllable  ;  but 
there  is  no  reason  against  the  inflection  running  thus — 
Hove,  thou  lovest,  he  loves  ;  ive  lave,  ye  lave,  they  lave  ; 
in  other  words,  there  is  no  reason  against  the  voivel  of  the 
root  being  changed,  just  as  is  the  case  with  the  form 
speak,  spoke  ;  fall,  fell. 

Now,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  with  a  great  number  of  verbs 
such  a  plural  inflection  not  only  actually  takes  place,  but 
takes  place  most  regularly.  It  takes  place,  however,  in 
the  past  tense  only.  And  this  is  the  case  in  all  the 
Gothic  languages  as  well  as  in  Anglo-Saxon.  Amongst 
the  rest,  in — 


NUMBERS  OF  VERBS. 


215 


Mceso-Golhic. 


Ski'iin,  /  sho7ic  ;  skinum,  we  shone. 
Smait,  I  smote ;  smitum,  we  smote. 
Kaus,  /  chose  ;  kusum,  we  chose. 
L-'iug,  I  lied;  lugum,  we  lied. 


fiab,  I  gave  ;  gebum,  we  gave. 
At,  lete;  6tum,  we  etc. 
Stal,  1  stole  ;  stelum,  we  stole. 
Qvam,  I  cavie  ;  qvemum,  we  came. 


jhis-IoSa.Ton. 


Am,  Iran  ;  iiinoii,  we  run. 

Ougau,  /  begait, ;  onguniion,  ice  be- 
gun. 

Spau,  I  span  ;  spunuoD,  we  spun. 

Sang,  I  sang  ;  sungon,  we  sung. 

Swang,  /  swang ;  swangon,  ive 
swung. 


Dranc,  I  drank ;  ciruucon,  we  drunk. 
Sane,  /  sank  ;  suncon,  we  sunk. 
Sprang,   /  sprang ;     sprungon,    we 

sprung. 
Swam,     /    swam ;     swummon,    we 

swum. 
Rang,  /  rang  ;  rungon,  we  rung. 


From  these  examples  the  reader  has  himself  dra^yn 
his  inference  :  viz.  that  words  like 


Began,  begun. 
Han,  ru7i. 
Span,  spun. 
Sang,  su7ig. 
Swang,  smcng, 
Sfjrang,  sprung. 


Sank,  sunk. 
Swam,  swum, 
Jiang,  rung. 
Bat,  bit. 
Smote,  emit. 
Drank,  drunk,  <Scc., 


generally  called  double  forms  of  the  past  tense,  were 
originally  different  numbers  of  the  same  tense,  the  forms 
in  a,  as  swam,  being  singular,  and  the  forms  in  ?/,  as 
sic  inn,  plural. 


^r,' 


216  ON  MOODS. 


CHAPTER  XXL 


ON    MOODS. 


§  291.  The  Anglo-Saxon  infinitive  lias  already  been 
considered. 

Between  the  second  plural  imperative,  and  the  second 
plural  indicative,  speak  ye,  and  ye  speak,  there  is  no  dif- 
ference of  form. 

Between  the  second  singular  imperative  speak,  and 
the  second  singular  indicative,  speakest,  there  is  a  differ- 
ence in  form. 

Still,  as  the  imperative  form  speak  is  distinguished 
from  the  indicative  form  speakest  by  the  negation  of  a 
character  rather  than  by  the  possession  of  one,  it  cannot 
be  said  that  there  is  in  English  any  imperative  mood. 

§  292.  If  he  speak,  as  opposed  to  if  he  speaks,  is  cha- 
racterized by  a  negative  sign  only,  and  consequently  is  no 
true  example  of  a  subjunctive.  Be,  as  opposed  to  am,  in 
the  sentence  if  it  he  so,  is  a  fresh  word  used  in  a  limited 
sense,  and  consequently  no  true  example  of  a  subjunctive. 
It  is  a  different  word  altogether,  and  is  only  the  subjunc- 
tive of  aTTi,  in  the  way  puss  is  the  vocative  of  cat. 

The  only  true  subjunctive  inflection  in  the  English 
language  is  that  of  were  and  wert,  as  opposed  to  the  indi- 
cative forms  was  and  wast. 


Indicative. 
Singular. 

1.  I  was. 

2.  Thou  wast. 
8.  He  was. 


Subjunci  ve. 
Singular.  Plural. 

If  I  were.  If  ve  were. 

If  thou  wert.       If  ye  were. 
If  he  were.  If  they  were. 


TENSES   IX   GEXEllAL.  217 


CHAriER  XXII. 


ON    TENSES    IN    GENERAL. 


§  293.  The  nature  of  tenses  in  general  is  best  exhi- 
bited by  reference  to  the  Greek ;  since  in  that  language 
they  are  more  numerous,  and  more  strongly  marked  than 
elseAvhcre. 

/  strike,  I  struck. — Of  these  words,  the  first  implies 
an  action  taking  place  at  the  time  of  speaking,  the  second 
marks  an  action  that  has  already  taken  place. 

These  two  notions  of  present  and  of  past  time,  being 
expressed  by  a  change  of  form,  are  true  tenses.  If  there 
were  no  change  of  form,  there  would  be  no  change  of 
tense.  They  are  the  only  true  tenses  in  our  language. 
In  /  was  heating,  I  have  beaten,  I  had  beaten,  and  / 
shall  heat,  a  difference  of  time  is  expressed ;  but  as  it  is 
expressed  by  a  combination  of  words,  and  not  by  a 
change  of  form,  no  true  tenses  are  constituted. 

§  294.  In  Greek  the  case  is  different.  TvTnw  {typto) 
=  /  beat ;  tTVTTTov  {etypton)  =- 1  was  beating  ;  rvy{ro} 
{typso)  =  I  shall  beat ;  eTV-^a  (etypsa)  =  I  heat  ;  rirvtpa 
{tctyfa)  =  /  have  beaten  ;  irerix^eLv  [etetyfeiji)  =  /  had 
beaten.  In  these  words  we  have,  of  the  same  mood,  the 
same  voice,  and  the  same  conjugation,  six  different  tenses  ; 
whereas,  in  English,  there  are  but  two.  The  forms 
TiTV(pa  and  ervyjra  are  so  strongly  marked,  that  we  recog- 
nise them  wheresoever  they  occur.  The  first  is  formed 
by  a  reduplication  of  the  initial  r,  and,  consequently,  may 

11 


218  TENSES  IX  GENERAL. 

be  called  tlic  reduplicate  form.  As  a  tense  it  is  called 
the  perfect.  In  the  form  eruyjra  an  e  is  prefixed,  and  an  a 
is  added.  In  the  allied  language  of  Italy  the  e  disappears, 
whilst  the  a-  (s)  remains.  "Ervy^a  is  said  to  be  an  aorist 
tense.     Scripsi  is  to  scribo  as  erviTaa  is  to  tutttw. 

§  295.  Now  in  the  Latin  language  a  confusion  takes 
place  between  these  two  tenses.  Both  forms  exist.  They 
are  used,  however,  indiscriminately.  The  aorist  form  has, 
besides  its  own,  the  sense  of  the  perfect.  The  perfect  has, 
besides  its  own,  the  sense  of  the  aorist.  In  the  following 
pair  of  quotations,  vixi,  the  aorist  form,  is  translated  / 
have  lived,  while  tefigit,  the  perfect  form,  is  translated  he 
touched. 

Vixi,  et  quem  dederat  cursum  Fortuna  peregi ; 

Et  nunc  magna  mei  sub  terras  ibis  imago. — JEn.  ir. 

Ut  primum  alatis  tetigit  magalia  plantis. — ^En.  iv. 

§  29G.  "When  a  difference  of  form  has  ceased  to  ex- 
press a  difference  of  meaning,  it  has  become  superfluous. 
This  is  the  case  with  the  two  forms  in  question.  One  of 
them  may  be  dispensed  with;  and  the  consequence  is, 
that,  although  in  the  Latin  language  both  the  perfect  and 
the  aorist  forms  are  found,  they  are,  with  few  exceptions, 
never  found  in  the  same  word.  Wherever  there  is  the 
perfect,  the  aorist  is  Avanting,  and  vice  versa.  The  two 
ideas  /  have  struck  and  /  struck  are  merged  into  the  no- 
tion of  past  time  in  general,  and  are  expressed  by  one  of 
two  forms,  sometimes  by  that  of  the  Greek  perfect,  and 
sometimes  by  that  of  the  Greek  aorist.  On  account  of 
this  the  grammarians  have  cut  down  the  number  of  Latin 
tenses  to  jive ;  forms  like  cucurri  and  vixi  being  dealt 
with  as  one  and  the  same  tense.  The  true  view  is,  that  in 
curro  the  aorist  form  is  replaced  by  the  perfect,  and  in 
vixi  the  perfect  form  is  replaced  by  the  aorist. 


TEXSES   IX   GENERAL. 


219 


§  297.  In  the  preseiit  English  there  is  no  undoubted 
perfect  or  reduplicate  form.  The  form  7novecl  corresponds 
in  meaning  not  Tvith  rervcpa  and  77iomordi,  but  with  ervylra 
and  vixL  Its  sense  is  that  of  erv^jra,  and  not  that  of  re- 
Tv(f)a.  The  notion  given  by  TeTV(f)a  we  express  by  the 
circumlocution  /  have  beaten.  We  haA'e  no  such  form  as 
hcheat  or  meniovc.  In  the  Moeso-Gothic,  however,  there  was 
a  true  reduplicate  form ;  in  other  words,  a  perfect  tense  as 
well  as  an  aorist.  It  is  by  the  possession  of  this  form 
that  the  verbs  of  the  first  six  conjugations  are  character- 
ized. 

English. 
I  have  folded,  or  I  folded. 
I  have  fed,  or  J  fed. 
I  have  lianged,  or  /  hanged. 
I  have  called,  or  /  called. 
I  have  played,  or  1  played. 
I  have  run,  or  /  ran, 
I  have  slept,  or  /  slept. 
I  have  lavghed,  or  /  laught. 
I  have  sown,  or  I  sowed* 
I  have  icept,  or  /  v;ept. 
I  leave  touched,  or  /  touched. 

In  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  the  perfect  forms  have, 
besides  their  own,  an  aorist  sense,  and  vice  versa. 

In  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  few  (if  any)  words  are 
found  in  both  forms. 

In  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  the  two  forms  are  dealt 
with  as  a  single  tense ;  Idtlo  being  called  the  praeterite  of 
Idia,  and  svor  the  prseterite  of  svara.  The  true  view, 
however,  is  that  in  Moeso-Gothic,  as  in  Latin,  there  are 
two  past  tenses,  each  having  a  certain  latitude  of  meaning, 
and  each,  in  certain  words,  replacing  the  other. 

The  reduplicate  form,  in  other  words,  the  perfect  tense, 
is  current   in  none  of  the  Gothic  languages  except  the 


Moeso-Gothic. 

English. 

Moeso-Gothic 

1st        Falfa, 

I  fold       . 

Faifal>, 

Halda, 

I  feed       . 

Haihald, 

Haha, 

/  hang     . 

Haihah, 

2nd.      Haita, 

I  call       . 

Haihait, 

Laika, 

I  play      . 

Lailiik, 

3rd.      Hlaupa, 

I  run 

Hlailaup, 

4tk      Slepa, 

I  sleep 

Saizlep, 

5th.      Laia, 

I  laugh 

Tiflilo, 

Saija, 

I  sow 

Saiso, 

6th.      Greta, 

I  weep 

Gaigrot, 

Teka, 

I  touch 

Taituk, 

220  TENSES  IN   GENERAL. 

Mocso- Gothic.  A  trace  of  it  is  said  to  be  found  in  the 
Anglo-Saxon  .of  the  seventh  century  in  the  "word  heht^ 
which  is  considered  to  be  he-ht,  the  Moeso-Gothic  hdihdit 
vocavi.  Did  from  do  is  also  considered  to  be  a  redupli- 
cate form. 

§  298.  In. the  English  language  the  tense  correspond- 
ing ^vith  the  Greek  aorist  and  the  Latin  forms  like  vixi,  is 
formed  after  two  modes  ;  1,  as  in  fell,  san^,  and  took^ 
from  fall,  sing,  and  take,  by  changing  the  vowel  of  the 
present :  2,  as  in  tnoved  and  ivept,  from  Tnove  and  wec]), 
by  the  addition  of  -d  or  -t ;  the  -d  or  -t  not  being  found 
in  the  original  word,  but  being  a  fresh  element  added  to  it. 
In  forms,  on  the  contrary,  like  sang  and  fell,  no  addition 
being  made,  no  new  element  appears.  The  vowel,  indeed, 
is  changed,  but  nothing  is  added.  Verbs,  then,  of  the 
first  sort,  may  be  said  to  form  their  prseterites  out  of 
themselves  ;  whilst  verbs  of  the  second  sort  require  some- 
thing from  without.  To  speak  in  a  metaphor,  words  like 
sairg  and  fell  are  comparatively  independent.  Be  this  as 
it  may,  the  German  grammarians  call  the  tenses  formed 
by  a  change  of  vowel  the  strong  tenses,  the  strong  verbs, 
the  strong  conjugation,  or  the  strong  order ;  and  those 
formed  by  the  addition  of  d  or  t,  the  weak  tenses,  the 
weak  verbs,  the  weak  conjugation,  or  the  iceak  order. 
Bound,  spoke,  gave,  lay,  &c.,  are  strong ;  mot  cd,  fa- 
voured, instructed,  <fcc.,  are  weak. 


THE   STKONG  TENSES.  221 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


THE    STUONG    TENSES. 


§  299.  The  strong  proDtcrites  arc  formed  from  the 
jirescnt  by  changing  the  vo-\vcl,  as  sing;  sang-;  speak, 
spoke 

In  Angh)-Saxon.  several  prrcteritcs  change,  in  their 
phiral,  the  vowel  of  their  singular ;  as 


Ic  sang,  /  ganci. 

]'u  s?mge,  tlioii  sungcst. 

He  sang,  he  sang. 


"VVe  s?<ugou,  tee  suvrj. 
Go  s!mgon,  ye  sung. 
Hi  swngon,  they  sung. 


The  bearing  of  this  fact  upon  the  pr?eterites  has  al- 
ready been  indicated.  In  a  great  number  of  "words  we 
have  a  double  form,  as  ran  and  I'un,  sang  and  sung, 
drank  and  drunk,  (fcc.  One  of  these  forms  is  derived 
from  the  singular,  and  the  other  from  the  plural. 

In  cases  where  but  one  form  is  preserved,  that  form  is 
not  necessarily  the  singular  ,*  indeed,  it  is  often  the  plural ; 
— e.  g.,  Ic  fand,  I  found,  we  ftmdon,  ice  found,  are  the 
Anglo-Saxon  forms.  Now  the  present  word/o?/«f/  comes, 
not  from  the  singular  fand,  but  from  the  plural  fnndon  ; 
although  in  the  Lowland  Scotch  dialect  and  in  the  old 
writers,  the  singidar  form  occurs  ; 

Donald  Cairil  finils  orra  things, 

Where  Allan  GregoryaH(/tlie  tings. — Scorr. 


222 


TllK   STRONG  TENSES. 


§  300.  Tlie  vefBs  "wherein  the  double  form  of  tho 
present- '>^prrct(5ntc  is  thus  explained,  fall  into  t-wo 
classes. 

1.  In  the  first  class,  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms  were  a  in 
the  singular,  and  i  in  the  plural ;  as — 


Sittff. 
Scean 
An'is 
Smat 


Flur. 
Scinoa  {we  shone). 
ArisoQ  {we  arose). 
Smiton  {we  tviote). 


This  accounts  for. 


Present. 
Rise 
Smite 
Ride 
Stride 
Slide 
Chide 
Drive 
Thrive 
Write 
Slit 
Lite 


n  Sing.  form. 

Prccf.  from  Plnr. 

Rose 

*Rh. 

Smote 

Sinit. 

Rode 

*Rid. 

'  Strode 

Strid. 

*Slode 

SUd. 

*Chode 

Chid. 

Drove 

*Driv 

Throve 

Thriv. 

Wrote 

Writ 

*Slat 

Slit. 

*Bat 

Bit 

2.   In  the  second  class,  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms  were  a 
in  the  singular,  and  ?t  in  the  plural,  as — 


Sing 

Band 

Fand 

Grand 

Wand 


Plural. 
Buudon  {we  bound). 
Fundon  {we  found). 
Grundon  {%ce  ground). 
Wundon  {we  wound). 


*  The  forms  marked  thus  *  are  either  obsolete  or  provinciaL 


THE   STRONG  TE 


Tliis  accounts  for — 


Present. 

Pra:f.froni  Sing.  form. 

Prat,  from  PI 

Swim 

Swam 

Swum. 

Begin 

Began 

Begun. 

Spiu 

*Span 

Spun. 

Win 

*Wan 

fWon. 

Sin- 

Sang 

Sung. 

Swing 

*Swang 

Swung. 

Spring 

Sprang 

Sprung. 

Sting 

*Stang 

Stung. 

Ring 

Rang 

Rung. 

Wring 

*Wrang 

Wrung. 

Fling 

Flang 

Flung. 

*Hing 

Hang 

Hung. 

String 

*Strang 

Strung. 

Sink 

Sank 

Sunk 

Drink 

Drank 

Drunk. 

Shrink 

Shrank 

Shrunk. 

Stink 

*Stank 

Stunk. 

Melt 

*Molt 



Help 

*Holp 

— 

Delve 

*Dolv 

— 

Stick 

*Stack 

Stuck. 

Run 

Ran 

Run. 

Burst 

Brast 

Burst. 

Bind 

Baud 

Bound. 

Find 

*Fand 

Found. 

§  301.  The  following  douLle  proeteritcs  arc  differently 
explained.  The  primary  one  oflc7i  (but  not  always)  is 
from  th(!  Anglo-Saxon  participle,  the  secondary  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  prceterite. 


Presciii. 

Cleave 

Steal 


Primary  Prcvferiic. 
Clove 
Stole 


Secondary  Prcctcrite. 
*Clave. 
*Stale. 


*  Obsolete. 


f  Soujidod  wun. 


22-i 


THK  STRONG  TENSES. 


Present 
Speak 
Swear 
Bear 
Tear 
Wear 
Break 
Get 
Tread 
Eid 
Eat 

§  302.  The  following  verbs 
for  the  preterite, — 

Present. 

Fall 

Befall 

Hold 

Draw 

Slay 

Fly 

Blow 

Crow 

Know 

Grow 

Throw 

Let 

Beat 

Come 

Heave 

Weave 

Freeze 

Shear 

Seethe 
Shake 
Take 


Primary  Pnvtcrite.         Secondary  Pratcrite. 


Spoke 

Spake. 

Swore 

Sware 

Bore 

Bare. 

Tore 

*Tare. 

Wore 

*Ware. 

Broke 

Brake. 

Got 

*Gat. 

Trod 

Trad. 

Bade 

Bid. 

Ate 

Ete. 

have  only  a  single  form 


Prceterite. 

Present. 

Fell. 

Forsake 

Befell. 

Eat 

Held. 

Give 

Drew. 

Wake 

Slew. 

Grave 

Flew. 

Shape 

Blew. 

Strike 

Crew. 

Sliine 

Knew. 

Abide 

Grew. 

Strive 

Threw. 

Chmb 

Let. 

Hide 

Beat. 

Dig 

Came. 

Clin- 

Hove. 

Swell 

Wove. 

Grind 

Froze. 

Wind 

Shore. 

Choose 

QuotL 

Stand 

Sod. 

Lie 

Shook. 

See 

Took. 

*  Obs 

oleta 

Prceterite. 

Forsook. 

Ate. 

Gave. 

Woke. 

Grove. 

Shope. 

Struck. 

Shone. 

Abode. 

Strove. 

Clomb. 

Hid. 

Dug. 

Clung. 

Swell.' 

Ground. 

Woimd. 

Chose. 

Stood. 

Lay. 

Saw, 


THE   STRONG  TENSES.  225 

§  303.  An  arrangement  of  the  preceding  verbs  into 
classes,  according  to  the  change  of  voAvel,  is  by  no  means 
difficult,  even  in  the  present  stage  of  the  English  lan- 
guage. In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  it  was  easier  still.  It  is 
also  easier  in  the  provincial  dialects,  than  in  the  literary 
English.     Thus,  Avhen 

Break  is  pronoiitcod  Breek, 
Bear  —  Beer, 

Tear  —  Teer, 

Swear  —  Sweer, 

Wear  —  Wcer, 

as  they  actually  are  by  many  speakers,  they  come  in  the 
same  class  with, — 

Speak  pronounced  Speck, 
Cleave        —         Clceve, 

and  form  their  prn?terlte  by  means  of  a  similar  change_ 
i.  e.,  by  changing  the  sound  of  the  ee  in  feet  (spelt  ea) 
into  that  of  the  a  in  fate  ;  viewed  thus,  the  irregularity  is 
less  than  it  appears  to  be  at  first  sight. 

Again,  tread  is  pronounced  tredd^  but  mawj  provin- 
cial speakers  say  treed,  and  so  said  the  Anglo-Saxons, 
whose  form  Avas  ic  trede  =  I  tread.  Their  prseterite  was 
trcBd.  This  again  subtracts  from  the  apparent  irre- 
gularity. 

Instances  of  this  kind  may  be  multiplied  ;  the  whole 
f[ucstion,  however,  of  the  conjugation  of  the  strong  verbs 
is  best  considered  after  the  perusal  of  the  next  chapter. 


226  THE   WEAK  TENSES. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 


THE    WEAK    TENSES. 


§  304.  The  prtctcrite  tense  of  the  -weak  verbs  is 
formed  by  the  addition  of  -d  or  -t. 

If  necessary,  the  syllable  -ed  is  substituted  for  -d. 

The  current  statement  that  the  syllable  -ed,  rather 
than  the  letter  -d  is  the  sign  of  the  praeterite  tense,  is 
true  only  in  regard  to  the  written  language.  In  stabbed, 
moved,  bragged,  icJdzzed,  judged,  filled,  slurred, 
slammed,  shunned,  barred,  strewed,  the  e  is  a  point  of 
spelling  only.  In  language,  except  in  declamation,  there 
is  no  second  vowel  sound.  The  -d  comes  in  immediate 
contact  "svith  the  final  letter  of  the  original  word,  and  the 
number  of  syllables  remains  the  same  as  it  was  before. 
We  say  slabd,  moved,  bragd,  &.c. 

§  305.  When,  however,  the  original  word  ends  in  -d  or 
-t,  as  slight  or  brand,  then,  and  then  only  is  there  the 
real  addition  of  the  syllable  -ed  ;  as  in  slighted,  branded. 

This  is  necessary,  since  the  combinations  slightt  and 
brandd  are  unpronounceable. 

Whether  the  addition  be  -d  or  -t  depends  upon  the 
flatness  or  sharpness  of  the  preceding  letter. 

After  b,  v,  th  (as  in  clothe),  g,  or  z,  the  addition  is  -d. 
This  is  a  matter  of  necessity.  We  say  stabd,  movd, 
clothd,  braggd,  whizzd,  because  stabt,  movt,  clotht, 
hraggt,  whizzt,  are  unpronounceable. 

After  I,  m,  n,  r,  w,  y.  or  a  vowel,  the  addition  is  also 


THE   WEAK  TEXSES.  227 

-d.  This  is  the  habit  of  the  English  language.  Filt^ 
shirt,  strai/t,  <fcc.,  are  as  pronounceable  as  Jilld,  slurrd, 
strai/d,  (fcc.  It  is  the  habit,  however,  of  the  English 
language  to  prefer  the  latter  forms. 

All  this,  as  the  reader  has  probably  observed,  is 
merely  the  reasoning  concerning  the  s,  in  vrords  like 
fathers,  «fcc.,  applied  to  another  letter  and  to  another 
part  of  speech. 

§  30G.  The  verbs  of  the  weak  conjugation  fall  into 
three  classes. 

I.  In  the  first  there  is  the  simple  addition  of  -d,  -/. 
or  -ed. 


Serve,  served. 
Cry,  cried. 
Betray,  betrayed. 
Expell,  expelled. 
Accuse,  accused. 
Instruct,  instructed. 
Invite,  invited. 
Waste,  wasted. 


Dip,  dipped  {dipt). 
Slip,  slipped  (dipt). 
Step,  stepped  [slept). 
Look,  looked  (lookt). 
Pluck,  plucked  (pluckl). 
Toss,  tossed  (tost). 
Push,  pushed  (pushi). 
Confess,  confessed  (confesl.) 


To  this  class  belong  the  greater  part  of  the  "weak 
verbs  and  all  verbs  of  foreign  origin. 

§  307.  II.  In  the  second  class,  besides  the  addition  of 
't  or  -d,  the  vowel  is  shortened^ 


Present. 

Prceterite. 

Creep 

Crept. 

Keep 

Kept. 

Sleep 

Slept 

Sweep 

Swept 

Weep 

Wept 

Lose 

Lost 

Mean 

*  Pronounced  }7u:nt 

meant 

228  TIJE    WEAK  TENSES. 

Here  the  liual  consonant  is  -t. 

Prcsciit  Frwlcrile 
Flee  Fkd. 

Hear  *Hearcl. 

Shoe  Shod. 

Say  fSaiJ. 

Here  the  final  consonant  is  -d. 

§  308.  III.  In  the  second  class  the  vowel  of  the  pre- 
sent tense  was  shortened  in  the  praiterite.  In  the  third 
class  it  is  chansred. 


Toll,  told. 
"Will,  Avouk 


Sell,  sold. 
Shall,  should. 


To  this  class  belong  the  remarkable  preterites  of  the 
verbs  seek^  beseech,  catch,  teach,  hring,  think,  and  hwj, 
viz.,  sourrht,  hesovs^ht,  caught,  taught,  brought,  thought, 
and  bought.  In  all  these,  the  final  consonant  is  either  g 
or  A',  or  else  a  sound  allied  to  those  mutes.  When  the 
tendency  of  these  sounds  to  become  h  and  y,  as  well  as 
to  undergo  farther  changes,  is  remembered,  the  forms  in 
point  cease  to  seem  anomalous.  In  wrought,  from  work, 
there  is  a  transposition.  In  laid  and  said  the  present 
forms  make  a  show  of  regularity  Avhich  they  have  not. 
The  true  original  forms  should  be  legde  and  scegde,  the 
infinitives  being  lecgan,  secgan.  In  these  Avords  the  i 
represents  the  semivowel  y,  into  Avhicli  the  original  g  was 
changed.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forms  of  the  other  words  are 
as  folloAYs : — 

Bycan,  bohte.  |  BringaD,  brohte. 

Secan,  sohtc.  I  Jieecan,  Jiohtc. 

Wyrcan,  worhte. 


*  Pronounced  herd.  ■)■  rronounccd  scd. 


THE   WEAK  TEXSES.  229 

§  309.  Out  of  the  three  classes  into  Avhich  the  weak 
verbs  in  Anglo-Saxon  arc  divided,  only  one  •  takes  a 
vowel  before  the  d  or  t.  The  other  two  add  the  syllables 
-te  or  -de,  to  the  last  letter  of  the  original  word.  The 
vowel  that,  in  one  out  of  the  three  Anglo-Saxon  classes, 
precedes  d  is  o.  Thus  we  have  Itrjian,  hifode  ;  dypian^ 
chjpodc.  In  the  other  two  classes  the  forms  arc  re- 
spectively hccrnan,  hccrnde  ;  and  tellan,  tealde,  no  vowel 
being  found.  The  participle,  however,  as  stated  above, 
ended,  not  in  -de  or  -te,  but  in  -d  or  -t ;  and  in  two  out 
of  the  three  classes  it  was  preceded  by  a  vowel ;  the 
vowel  being  e, — gelufod,  bcnrncd,  getcald.  Now  in  those 
conjugations  where  no  vowel  preceded  the  d  of-  the  prre- 
tcrite,  and  where  the  original  word  ended  in  -d  or  -t,  a 
difEculty,  which  has  already  been  indicated,  arose.  To 
add  the  sign  of  the  prasterite  to  a  word  like  eard-ian  {to 
dwell)  was  an  easy  matter,  inasmuch  as  eardian  was  a 
word  belonging  to  the  first  class,  and  in  the  first  class  the 
preterite  was  tbrmed  in  -ode.  Here  the  vowel  o  kept  the 
two  da  from  coming  in  contact.  With  words,  however, 
like  tnetan  and  sciidan,  this  was  not  the  case.  Here  no 
vinvcl  intervened ;  so  that  the  natural  praeterite  forms 
were  niet-te,  send-de,  combinations  wherein  one  of  the 
letters  ran  every  chance  of  being  dropped  in  the  pronunci- 
ation. Hence,  with  the  exception  of  the  verbs  in  the  first 
class,  words  ending  in  -d  or  -t  in  the  root  admitted  no  ad- 
ditional d  or  t  in  the  preterite.  This  difiiculty,  existing 
in  the  present  English  as  it  existed  in  the  Anglo-Saxon, 
modifies  the  prasterites  of  most  words  ending  in  -t  or  -d. 

5  310.  In  several  words  there  is  the  actual  addition  of 
the  syllable  -ed  ;  in  other  words  d  is  separated  from  the 
last  letter  of  the  original  Avord  by  llic  addition  of  a  A-owel ; 
as  ended,  instructed,  6cc. 

§  311.  In  several  words  the  final  -d  is  changed  into  -?, 


230  THE  WKAK  TENSES. 

as  bend,  bent ;  rend,  rent  ;  send,  sent ;  gild,  gilt  ;  build, 
built ;  spend,  spent,  <fcc. 

§  312.  In  several  words  the  vowel  of  the  root  is 
changed  ;  as  feed,  fed  ;  bleed,  bled  ;  breed,  bred  ;  ineet, 
inet  ;  speed,  sped  ;  read,  rSad,  (fcc.  Words  of  this  last- 
named  class  cause  occasional  diiEculty  to  the  gram- 
marian. No  'addition  is  made  to  the  root,  and,  in  this 
circumstance,  they  agree  with  the  strong  verbs.  More- 
over, there  is  a  change  of  the  vowel.  In  this  circum- 
stance also  they  agree  with  the  strong  verbs.  Hence 
with  forms  like  fed  and  led  we  are  in  doubt  as  to  the  con- 
jugation. This  doubt  we  have  three  means  of  settling,  as 
may  be  shown  by  the  word  beat. 

a.  By  the  form  of  the  participle. — The  -en  in  beaten 
shows  that  the  word  beat  is  strong. 

b.  By  the  nature  of  the  vowel. — The  weak  form  of  to 
beat  would  be  bet,  or  beHt,  after  the  analogy  of  feed  and 
read.  By  some  persons  the  word  is  pronounced  bet,  and 
with  those  who  do  so  the  word  is  weak. 

c.  By  a  knowledge  of  the  older  forms. — The  Anglo- 
Saxon  form  is  bedte,  beot.  There  is  no  such  a  weak 
form  as  beate,  ba:tte.  The  pra^terite  of  sendan  is  sende 
weak.  There  is  in  Anglo-Saxon  no  such  form  as  sa7id, 
strong. 

In  all  this  we  see  a  series  of  expedients  for  distinguish- 
ing the  prceterite  form  from  the  present,  when  the  root 
ends  with  the  same  sound  with  which  the  affix  beo;ins. 

The  change  from  a  long  vowel  to  a  short  one,  as  in 
feed,  fed,  &c.,  can  only  take  place  where  there  is  a  long 
voT^el  to  be  changed. 

Where  the  vowels  are  short,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  word  ends  in  -d,  the  -c?  of  the  present  may  become  -t 
iB  the  preterite.     Such  is  the  case  with  bend,  bent. 

When  there  is  no  long  vowel  to  shorten,  and  no   d 


THE   WEAK  TEXSES. 


231 


to  change  into  -t,  the  two  tenses,    of  necessity,    remain 
alike  ;  such  is  the  case  Tvith  cut,  cost,  <fcc. 

§  313.  The  following  verbs    form  tlieir  practerite   in 
-t : — 


Present. 

Prcetcritc. 

Leave 

fLeft 

not 

X  Leayed. 

Cleave 

Cleft 

— 

Cleavei 

Bereave 

Bereft 

— 

Bereavffi 

Deal 

*  Deaft 

— 

Denied. 

Feel 

FeU 

— 

Ycclcd. 

Dream 

f  Drfm< 

— 

DieamcdL 

Learc 

f  Lcrnt 

— 

Learned 

§  314.  Certain  so-called  irregularities  may  now  be 
noticed. — Made,  had. — In  these  words  there  is  nothing 
remarkable  but  the  ejection  of  a  consonant.  The  Anglo- 
Saxon  forms  are  macode  and  hafde,  respectively.  The 
words,  however,  in  regard  to  the  amount  of  change,  are 
not  upon  a  j)ar.  The/  in  hafde  was  probably  sounded 
as  V.  Now  v  is  a  letter  excessively  liable  to  be  ejected, 
which  h  is  not.  K,  before  it  is  ejected,  is  generally 
changed  into  cither  g  or  y. 

Would,  should,  could. — It  must  not  be  imagined  that 
coidd  is  in  the  same  predicament  with  these  words.  In 
icill'and  shall  the  -I  is  part  of  the  original  word.  This 
is  not  the  case  with  caii.     For  the  form  could,  see  h  331. 

§  315.  Aught. — In  Anglo-Saxon  ahte,  the  preterite 
of  the  present  form  dJi,  plural  agon. — As  late  as  the  time 
of  Elizabeth  we  find  owe  used  for  own.  The  present 
form  own  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  plural  agon. 
Aught  is  the  prreterite  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  ah  ;  oiced  of 
the  English  owe  =  deheo  ;  owned  of  the  English  oicn  — 

*  Pronounced  delt. 

f  So  pronounced. 

\  Pronounced  leevd,  clcevd,  bereevd,  deeld,/eeld,  dreemd,  lernd. 


232  THE   WEAK  TEXSES. 

possldeo.  The  ayoi\I  oini,  in  the  expression  to  own  to  a 
thing,  has  a  totally  different  origin.  It  comes  fifom  the 
Anglo-Saxon  an  (plural,  unnon)  =  I  give,  ov  grant  = 
conccdo. 

§  31G.  Durst. — The  verb  dare  is  both  transitive  and 
intransitive.  We  can  say  either  I  dare  do  such  a  thing, 
or  /  dai'c  {challenge)  such  a  man  to  do  it.  This,  in  the 
present  tense,  is  unequivocally  correct.  In  the  past  the 
double  power  of  the  word  dare  is  ambiguous  ;  still  it  is, 
to  my  mind  at  least,  allowable.  We  can  certainly  say 
/  dared  him  to  accept  my  challejige ;  and  Ave  can, 
perhaps,  say  /  dared  venture  on  the  expedition.  In  this 
last  sentence,  however,  durst  is  the  preferable  expres- 
sion. 

Now,  although  dare  is  both  transitive  and  intransi- 
tive, durst  is  only  intransitive.  It  never  agrees  with 
the  Latin  word  provoco  ;  only  with  the  Latin  word  auedo. 
Moreover,  the  word  durst  has  both  a  present  and  a  past 
sense.  The  difficulty  Avhich  it  presents  consists  in  the 
presence  of  the  -sf.  letters  characteristic  of  the  second 
person  singular,  but  here  found  in  all  the  persons  alike ; 
as  I  durst,  they  durst,  &c. 

This  has  still  to  be  satisfactorily  accoimted  for. 

Must. — A  form  common  to  all  persons,  numbers,  and 
tenses.  That  neither  the  -5  nor  the  -t  are  part  of  the 
original  root,  is  indicated  by  the  Scandinavian  form  tnaae 
(Danish),  pronounced  moh  ;  praeterite  maatt. 

This  form  has  still  to  be  satisfactorily  accounted 
for. 

TF/.S/.— In  its  present  form  a  regular  prasterite  from 
wiss  =  know.  .  The  difficulties  of  this  word  arise  from  the 
parallel  forms  wit  (as  in  to  wit),  and  wot=-knew.  The 
following  are  the  forms  of  this  peculiar  word  : — 

In   Moeso-Gothic,    1   sing.   pres.   ind.   vhit ;    2.    do., 


THE   WEAK  TENSES.  233 

val-it  ;  1  pi.  vitnm  ;  proitcritc  1  s.  vissa ;  2  visscss  ;  1 
})1.  vissedian.  From  the  form  vuist  avc  see  that  the 
second  sinf^ular  is  formed  after  the  mamier  o^  must ;  that 
is,  vuist  stands  instead  of  va'it-t.  From  the  form  vissediim 
■\ve  see  that  the  pra-teritc  is  not  strong,  bnt  weak  ;  therefore 
tliat  vissa  is  euphonic  for  vista. 

In  Anglo-Saxon. —  Wat,  wast,  tviton,  ivistc,  and  wisse, 
iristoii. — Hence  the  double  forms,  wiste,  and  wissc,  verify 
the  statement  concerning  the  Mocso-Gothic  vissa. 

In  Icelandic. —  Veit,  veizt,  vitum,  vissi.  Danish  ved, 
vide,  vidste.  Observe  the  form  vidste  ;  since,  in  it,  the  d 
of  the  root  (in  spelling,  at  least)  is  preserved.  The  t  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  wistc  is  the  t,  not  of  the  root,  but  of  the 
inflection. 

In  respect  to  the  four  forms  in  question,  viz.,  wit,  wot, 
7ciss,  wisst,  the  first  seems  to  be  the  root ;  the  second  a 
strong  prneterite  regularly  formed,  but  used  (like  olha  in 
Greek)  -vvith  a  present  sense  ;  the  third  a  weak  prteterite, 
of  Tvhich  the  -t  has  been  ejected  by  a  euphonic  jirocess, 
used  also  with  a  present  sense ;  the  fourth  is  a  second 
singular  from  iviss  after  the  manner  of  loert  from  ivere, 
a  second  singular  from  loit  after  the  manner  of  must,  a 
secondary  prreterite  from  loiss,  or  finally,  the  form  icisse, 
anterior  to  the  operation  of  the  euphonic  process  that 
ejected  the  -t. 

§  317.  In  the  i>hYascthisu'illdo  =  this  will  answer  the 
]j7i7'pose,  the  word  do  is  Avholly  different  from  the  word 
do,  meaning  to  act.  In  the  first  case  it  is  equivalent  to 
the  Latin  valere  ;  in  the  second  to  the  Latin  faccrc.  Of 
the  first  the  Anglo-Saxon  inflection  is  dcaJi,  dugon,  dohte, 
dohtest,  &CC.  Of  the  second  it  is  d6,  do^,  di/de,  (fee.  I 
doubt  whether  the  prfx^teritc  did,  as  equivalent  to  valchat 
=-was  good  for,  is  correct.  In  the  phrase  it  did  for  him 
'^'^  it  finished  him,  cither  meaning  may  be  allowed. 


23-i  THE   WEAK  TENSES. 

Ill  the  present  Danish  they  -write  dufftr,  but  say  cluer : 
as  duger  et  noget7  =  Is  it  loorth  anything  1  pronounced 
dooer  deh  note  7  This  accounts  for  the  ejection  of  the  g. 
The  Anglo-Saxon  form  deah  does  the  same. 

§  318.  Mind — mind  and  do  so  and  so. — In  this  sen- 
tence the  -word  mind  is  wholly  different  from  the  noun 
mind.  The  'Anglo-Saxon  forms  are  getnan,  gemanst, 
genu(7io)i,  Avithout  the  -d ;  this  letter  occurring  only  in 
the  prnctcrite  tense  {gcmiinde,  geninndon),  of  which  it  is 
the  sign.  Mind  is,  then,  a  proeterite  form  with  a  present 
sense ;  Avhilst  minded  (as  in  he  minded  his  business)  is 
an  instance  of  excess  of  inflection  ;  in  other  words,  it  is  a 
proeterite  formed  from  a  proeterite. 

§  319.  Yode. — The  obsolete  proeterite  of  go,  now  re- 
placed by  loent,  the  proeterite  of  wend.  Regular,  except 
that  the  initial  g  has  become  y. 

§  320.  Did.— See  §  317. 

Did,  from  do=facio,  is  a  strong  verb.  This  we  infer 
from  the  form  of  its  participle  done. 

If  so  the  final  -d  is  not  the  same  as  the  -d  in  moved. 
What  is  it  ?  There  are  good  grounds  for  believing  that 
in  the  word  did  we  have  a  single  instance  of  the  old  re- 
duplicate j)raiterite.  If  so,  it  is  the  latter  d  which  is 
radical,  and  the  former  which  is  inflectional. 


ON   COXJUGATIOX. 


235 


CHAPTER  XXV. 


ON    CONJUGATION. 


§  321.  Attention  is  directed  to  the  following  list  of 
verbs.  In  the  present  English  they  all  form  the  pra^ter- 
ite  in  -d  or  -t ;  in  Anglo-Saxon,  they  all  formed  it  by  a 
change  of  the  vowel.  In  other  words  they  are  loeak  verbs 
tJtat  were  once  strong. 


Proiterites. 

English. 

Anglo 

■Saxo7i. 

Present. 

Praterite. 

Present. 

Pratcrtie. 

Wreak 

Wreaked. 

Wrece 

Wras'c. 

Fret 

Fretted. 

Frete 

Frai't 

Mete 

Meted. 

Mete 

Mse't. 

Shear 

Sheared. 

Scere 

Scear. 

Braid 

Braided. 

Brede 

Brae'd. 

Knead 

Kneaded. 

Cnede 

Cnae'd. 

Dread 

Dreaded. 

Drffi'de 

Dred. 

Sleep 

Slept 

Slape 

Slep. 

Fold 

Folded. 

Fealde 

Feold. 

Wield 

Wielded. 

Wealde 

Weold. 

Wax 

Waxed. 

Weaxe 

Weox. 

Leap 

Leapt 

Illeiipe 

Illeop. 

Sweep 

Swept 

Swape 

Sweop. 

Weep 

Wept 

Wepe 

Wcop. 

Sow- 

Sowed. 

Sawe 

Seow. 

Bake 

Baked. 

Bace 

B6k. 

Gnaw 

Gnawed. 

Gnage 

Gnoh 

Laugb 

Laughed. 

Illihhe 

Hloh. 

Wade 

Waded. 

Wade 

Wod. 

236 


OK  CONJUGATION. 


English. 

Anglo 

■Saxon. 

Prcsntt.                J 

^rcctcrilc. 

Present. 

Prcctcrite. 

Lade 

Laded. 

made 

Hlod. 

Grave 

Graved. 

Grafe 

Grof: 

Shave 

Shaved. 

Scafe 

Sc6£ 

Step 

Stepped. 

Steppe 

Stop. 

Wjish 

Wa.'ihed. 

Wacse 

AVocs. 

Bellow 

BcUowed. 

Beige 

Bealh. 

Swallow 

Swallowed. 

Swelge 

Swealh. 

Mourn 

Mourned. 

Murne 

Jlearn. 

Spurn 

Spurned. 

Spurne 

Speam. 

Carve 

Carved. 

Ceorfe 

Cear£ 

Starve 

Starved. 

Stcorfe 

St£Er£ 

Thresh 

Threshed. 

J>ersce 

]5sersc. 

Hew 

Hewed. 

Heawe 

Heow. 

Flow 

Flowed. 

Flowo 

Fleow. 

Row 

Rowed. 

Ruwe 

Reow. 

Creep 

Crept. 

Creupe 

Crcap. 

Dive 

Dived. 

De6fe 

Deaf. 

Shove 

Shoved. 

Sceofe 

Sceaf. 

Chew 

Chewed. 

Ceuwe 

Ce^iw. 

Brew 

Brewed. 

Breowe 

Breaw. 

Lock 

Locked. 

Luce 

Leac. 

Suck 

Sucked. 

Slice 

Seac. 

Reek 

Reeked. 

Reuce 

Rede. 

Smoke 

Smoked. 

Smeoce 

Smeac. 

Bow 

Bowed. 

Beoge 

Beah. 

Lie 

Lied. 

Leoge 

Leah. 

Gripe 

Griped. 

Gripe 

Grap. 

Span 

Spanned. 

Spanne 

Sp6n. 

Eke 

Eked. 

Eiice 

Eoc, 

Fare 

Fared. 

Fare 

For. 

§  322.  Hespccting  the  strong  verb,  the  follo"\ving  gen- 
eral statements  may  be  made : 

1.  Many  strong  verbs  become  weak ;  -whilst  no  weak 
verb  ever  becomes  strong. 

2.  All  the  strong  verbs  arc  of  Saxon  origin.     None 
are  classical. 


ON   CONJUGATION.  237 

3.  The  greater  number  of  them  are  strong  throughout 
tlic  Gothic  tongues. 

4.  No  new  Avord  is  ever,  upon  its  importation,  inflected 
according  to  the  strong  conjugation.  It  is  always  weak. 
As  nearly  as  a.  d.  1085,  the  French  word  admiher  =  io 
(Iifh,  was  introduced  into  English.  Its  preterite  was  diih- 
hade. 

5.  All  derived  woi-ds  are  inflected  weak.  The  intran- 
sitive forms  drink  and  lie,  arc  strong ;  the  transitive  forms 
drench  and  lay,  are  weak. 

This  shows  that  the  division  of  verbs  into  weak  and 
strong  is  a  truly  natural  one. 


238  DEFECTIVENESS  AND  IllREGULARITy. 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

DEFECTIVENESS    AND    IRREGULAraXY. 

i  323.  The  distinction  between  irregularity  and  de 
fectiveness  has  been  foreshadowed.  It  is  now  more  ur 
gently  insisted  on. 

The  words  that  have  hitherto  served  as  illustrationb 
are  the  personal  pronouns  /  or  me,  the  adjectives-  good, 
better,  and  best. 

The  view  of  these  words  was  as  follows ;  viz.,  that 
none  of  them  were  irregular,  but  that  they  Avere  all  de- 
fective. Me  wanted  the  nominative,  /  the  oblique  cases. 
Good  was  without  a  comparative,  better  and  best  had  no 
positive  degree. 

Now  ine  and  better  may  be  said  to  make  good  the  de- 
fectiveness of  /  and  good  ;  and  /  and  good  may  be  said 
to  replace  the  forms  wanting  in  me  and  better.  This  gives 
us  the  principle  of  compensation.  To  introduce  a  new 
term,  /  and  me,  good  and  better,  may  be  said  to  be  com- 
jjlementary  to  each  other. 

"What  applies  to  nouns  applies  to  verbs  also.  Go  and 
went  are  not  irregularities.  Go  is  defective  in  the  past 
tense.  Went  is  without  a  present.  The  two  words,  how- 
ever, compensate  their  mutual  deficiencies,  and  are  com- 
plementary to  each  other. 

The  distinction  between  defectiveness  and  irregularity, 
is  the  first  instrument  of  criticism  for  coming  to  true 


DEFECTn'ENESS  A^iJ)   IRREGULARITY.  239 

vic^NS  concerning  the  proportion  of  the  regular  and  irreg- 
ular verbs. 

§  324.  The  second  instrument  of  criticism  in  deter- 
mining the  iiTCgular  verbs,  is  the  meaning  that  we  attach 
to  the  term. 

It  is  very  evident  that  it  is  in  the  power  of  the  gram- 
marian to  raise  the  number  of  et3-mological  ii-regularities 
to  any  amount,  by  narrowing  the  definition  of  the  word 
irrcg-ular  ;  in  other  words,  by  framing  an  exclusive  rule. 
Tlic  current  rule  of  the  common  grammarians  that  the 
preterite  is  formed  6y  the  addition  of  -/,  or  -d,  or  -cd  ;  a 
position  sufficiently  exclusive  ;  since  it  proscribes  not  only 
the  whole  class  of  strong  verbs,  but  also  Avords  like  beiit 
and  sent,  where  -t  exists,  but  where  it  does  not  exist  as 
an  addition.  The  regular  forms,  it  may  be  said,  should 
be  bended  and  sended. 

Exclusive,  however,  as  the  rule  in  question  is,  it  is 
plain  that  it  might  be  made  more  so.  The  regular  forms 
might,  by  the  fiat  of  a  rule,  be  restricted  to  those  in  -d. 
In  this  case  words  like  wept  and  burnt  Avould  be  added  to 
the  already  numerous  list  of  irregulars. 

Finally,  a  further  limitation  might  be  made,  by  laying 
down  as  a  rule  that  no  word  was  regular,  unless  it  ended 
in  -ed. 

§  325.  Thus  much  concerning  the  modes  of  making 
rules  exclusive,  and,  consequently,  of  raising  the  amount  of 
irregularities.  This  is  the  last  art  that  the  philosophic 
grammarian  is  ambitious  of  acquiring.  True  etymology 
reduces  irregularity ;  and  that  by  making  the  rules  of 
grammar,  not  exclusive,  but  general.  The  quantum  of 
irregularity  is  in  the  inverse  proportion  to  the  generality 
of  our  rules.  In  language  itself  there  is  no  irregularity. 
The  word  itself  is  only  another  name  for  our  ignorance  of 
the  processes  that   change   words ;    and,    as   irregularity 


210  DEFECTIVENESS  A^'D   IRREGULARITY. 

is  in  the  direct  proportion  to  the  cxclusivencss  of 
our  rules,  the  cxclusiveness  of  our  rules  is  in  the 
direct  proportion  to  our  if^norancc  of  etymological  pro- 
cesses. 

§  326.  The  explanation  of  some  fresli  terms  -will  lead 
us  towards  the  definition  of  the  word  irregular. 

Vital  and  obsolete  processes. — The  word  moved  is 
formed  from  7nove,  by  the  addition  of  ~d.  The  addition 
of  -d  is  the  process  by  which  the  present  form  is  rendered 
practerite.  The  word  fell  is  formed  from  fall,  by  chang- 
ing a  into  e.  The  change  of  vowel  is  the  process  by 
which  the  present  form  is  rendered  prseterite.  Of  the  two 
processes  the  result  is  the  same.  In  what  respect  do 
they  differ? 

For  the  sake  of  illustration,  let  a  new  word  be  intro- 
duced into  the  language.  Let  a  praeterite  tense  of  it 
be  formed.  This  prasterite  would  be  formed,  not  by 
changing  the  vowel,  but  by  adding  -d.  No  neiu  verb 
ever  takes  a  strong  prseterite.  The  like  takes  place 
with  nouns.  No  new  substantive  would  form  its  plural, 
like  oxeyi  or  geese,  by  adding  -en,  or  by  changing  the 
vowel.  It  would  rather,  like  fathers  and  horses,  add  the 
lene  sibilant. 

Now,  the  processes  that  change  fall,  ox  and  goose  in- 
to fell,  oxen,  and  geese,  inasmuch  as  they  cease  to  oper- 
ate on  the  language  in  its  present  stage,  are  obsolete  pro- 
cesses ;  whilst  those  that  change  move  into  7noved,  and 
horse  into  horses,  operating  on  the  language  in  its  present 
stage,  are  vital  processes. 

A  definition  of  the  word  ii'regular  might  be  so  framed 
as  to  include  all  words  whose  forms  could  not  be  accounted 
for  by  the  vital  processes.  Such  a  definition  would  make 
all  the  strong  verbs  irregular. 

The  very  fact  of  so  natural  a  class  as  that  of  the  strong 


DEFECTIVENESS  AND   IKIIEGULARITY.  2-11 

verbs  being  reduced  to  the  condition  of  irregulars,  inva- 
lidates such  a  definition  as  this. 

§  327.  Processes  of  necessity  as  opposed  to  ])rocesses 
of  habit. — The  combinations  -pd,  fd,  -kd,  -sd,  and  some 
others,  are  unpronounceable.  Hence  words  like  step, 
quaff,  bad:,  kiss,  &c.,  take  after  them  the  sound  of  -t  : 
stept,  qnafft,  SiC,  being  their  preterites,  instead  of  stepd, 
quaffd.  Here  the  change  from  -(/  to  -t  is  a  matter  of 
necessity.  It  is  not  so  -with  Avords  like  weep,  and  wept, 
(fcc.  Here  the  change  of  vowel  is  not  necessary.  Wecpt 
might  have  been  said  if  tlic  habit  of  the  language  had 
permitted. 

A  definition  of  the  word  irregular  might  be  so  framed 
as  to  include  all  words  whose  natural  form  was  modified 
by  any  euphonic  process  whatever.  In  this  case  stept 
(modified  by  a  process  of  necessity),  and  ivept  (modified 
by  a  process  of  habit),  would  be  equally  irregular. 

A  less  limited  definition  might  account  words  regular 
as  long  as  the  process  by  which  they  are  deflected  from 
their  natural  form  was  a  process  of  necessity.  Those, 
however,  Avhich  were  modified  by  a  process  of  habit  it 
would  class  with  the  irregulars. 

Definitions  thus  limited  arise  from  ignorance  of  eu- 
phonic processes,  or  rather  from  an  ignorance  of  the 
generality  of  their  operation. 

§  328.  Ordinary  pi'ocesses  as  opposed  to  extraordi- 
nary p7'ocesses. — The  whole  scheme  of  language  is  ana- 
logical. A  new  word  introduced  into  a  language  takes 
the  forms  of  its  cases  or  tenses,  &c.,  from  the  forms  of 
the  cases  or  tenses,  &c.,  of  the  old  words.  The  analogy  is 
extended.  Now  few  forms  (if  any)  are  so  unique  as  not 
to  have  some  others  corresponding  with  them  ;  and  few 
processes  of  change  are  so  unique  as  not  to  affect  more 
words  than  one.  The  forms  wept,  and  slept,  correspond 
12 


242  DEFECTIVENESS  AND   lllHEGULARITY. 

with  each  other.  They  arc  brou^'ht  about  by  the  same 
process  :  viz.,  by  the  shortening  of  the  vowel  in  weep  and 
sleep.  The  analogy  of  weep  is  extended  to  sleep,  and  vice 
versa.  Changing  our  expression,  a  common  influence 
affects  both  Avords.  The  alteration  itself  is  the  leading  fact. 
The  extent  of  its  influence  is  an  instrument  of  classifica^ 
tion.  "When  processes  aftcct  a  considerable  number  of 
■words,  they  may  be  called  ordinary  processes  ;  as  opposed 
to  extraordinary  processes,  •which  aff'ect  one  or  few  "words. 

When  a  -word  stands  by  itself,  Avitli  no  other  corre- 
sponding to  it,  Ave  confess  our  ignorance,  and  say  that  it  is 
aficcted  by  an  extraordinary  process,  by  a  process  peculiar 
to  itself,  or  by  a  process  to  which  we  know  nothing 
similar. 

A  definition  of  the  word  irregular  might  be  so  framed 
as  to  include  all  words  afi'ccted  by  extraordinary  j^ro- 
cesses  ;  the  rest  being  considered  regular. 

§  329.  Positive  processes  as  opposed  to  ambiguous 
processes. — The  words  ivept  and  slept  are  similarly 
affected.  Each  is  changed  from  iveep  and  sleep  respect- 
ively ;  and  we  know  that  the  process  which  affects  the  one 
is  the  process  that  affects  the  other  also.  Here  tliere  is 
a  positive  process. 

Reference  is  now  made  to  words  of  a  different  sort. 
The  nature  of  the  word  worse  has  been  explained  in  the 
Chapter  on  the  Comparative  Degree.  There  the  form  is 
accounted  for  in  two  ways,  of  which  only  one  can  be  the 
true  one.  Of  the  two  processes,  each  might  equally 
have  brought  about  the  present  form.  Which  of  the 
tv,-o  it  was,  we  are  unable  to  say.  Here  the  process  is 
arnhignous. 

A  definition  of  the  Avord  irregidar  might  be  so  framed 
his  to  include  all  words  affected  by  ambiguous  processes. 

§  330.  Normal  ]:>rocesscs  as  opposed  to  processes  of 


DEFEC'lIVENESS   AND   IKIIEGULAEITY.  243 

confusion.— Let  a  certain  -word  come  under  class  A.  Let 
all  words  under  class  A  be  similarly  affected.  Let  a 
given  word  come  under  class  A.  This  word  will  be 
affected  even  as  the  rest  of  class  A  is  affected.  The  pro- 
cess affecting,  and  the  change  resulting,  will  be  normal, 
regular,  or  analogical. 

Let,  however,  a  word,  instead  of  really  coming  under 
class  A,  only  appear  to  do  so.  Let  it  be  dealt  with 
accordingly.  The  analogy  then  is  a  false  one.  The 
principle  of  imitation  is  a  wrong  one.  The  process  affect- 
ing is  a  process  of  confusion. 

Examples  of  this  (a  few  amongst  many)  are  words 
like  songsfj'ess,  theirs,  minded,  where  the  words  songstr-, 
their-,  mind-,  are  dealt  with  as  roots,  which  they  are 
not. 

Ambiguous  processes,  extraordinary  processes,  pro- 
cesses of  confusion — each,  or  all  of  these,  are  legitimate 
reasons  for  calling  words  irregular.  The  practice  of 
etymologists  will  determine  what  definition  is  most  con- 
venient. 

With  extraordinary  processes  we  know  nothing  about 
the  word.  "With  ambiguous  processes  we  are  unable  to 
make  a  choice.  With  processes  of  confusion  we  see  the 
analogy,  but,  at  the  same  time,  see  that  it  is  a  false  one. 

§  331.  Could. — With  all  persons  who  pronounce  the  I 
this  Avord  is  truly  irregular.  The  Anglo-Saxon  form  is 
cii^e.     The  I  is  inserted  by  a  process  of  confusion. 

Can,  cunne,  canst,  ciinnon,  cunnan,  cu^e,  cu^on,  cu^ 
— such  are  the  remaining  forms  in  Anglo-Saxon.  None 
of  them  account  for  the  I.  The  presence  of  the  I  mak'?s 
the  word  coidd  irregular.  No  reference  to  the  allied 
languages  accounts  for  it. 

Notwithstanding  this,  the  presence  of  the  I  is  ac- 
counted for.     In  would   and  should  the  I  has  a  propcar 


244  DEFECTIVENESS   AND   IRREGULARITY. 

place.  It  is  part  of  the  original  words,  will  and  shall. 
A  false  analogy  looked  upon  could  in  the  same  light. 
Ilcncc  a  true  irregularit}^ ;  provided  that  the  l  he  ino- 
lumnccd. 

The  L,  however,  is  pronounced  by  few,  and  that  only 
in  pursuance  with  the  spelling.  This  reduces  the  word 
could  to  an  irregularity,  not  of  language,  but  only  of 
orthography. 

That  the  mere  ejection  of  the  -n  in  caiii  and  that  the 
mere  lengthening  of  the  vowel,  are  not  irregularities,  Ave 
learn  from  a  knowledge  of  the  processes  that  convert  the 
Greek  o^QVTo<i  {pdontos)  into  ohov^  {pdoivs). 

§  332.  The  verb  quoth  is  truly  defective.  It  is  found 
in  only  one  tense,  one  number,  and  one  person.  It  is  the 
third  person  singular  of  the  prccterite  tense.  It  has  the 
further  peculiarity  of  preceding  its  pronoun.  Instead  of 
saying  lie  quoth,  we  say  quoth  he.  In  Anglo-Saxon,  how- 
ever, it  was  not  defective.  It  was  found  in  the  other 
tenses,  in  the  other  number,  and  in  other  moods.  Ic 
cwe^e  \li  cwyst,  he  civy^  ;  ic  ciDCb^,  }>u  civoi^e,  he 
cwcB^,  ive  civccdon,  ge  cwmdon,  Id  cwcedon ;  imperative, 
cive"^  ;  participle,  geciceden.  In  the  Scandinavian  it  is 
current  in  all  its  forms.  There,  however,  it  means,  not  to 
speak  but  to  sing.  As  far  as  its  conjugation  goes,  it  is 
strong.  As  far  as  its  class  goes,  it  follows  the  form  of 
speak,  spoke.  Like  speak,  its  Anglo-Saxon  form  is  in  cb, 
as  cwai^.  Like  one  of  the  forms  of  speak,  its  English 
form  is  in  o,  as  quoth,  spoke. 

§  333.  The  principle  that  gives  us  the  truest  views  of 
the  structure  of  language  is  that  Avhich  considers  no 
word  irregular  unless  it  be  affected  by  either  an  amhi- 
guous  process,  or  by  a  process  of  confusion.  The  Avords 
affected  by  extraordinary  jjrocesses  form  a  provisional 
class,  Avhich  a  future  increase  of  our  etymological  know- 


DEFECTIVENESS   AND   IRKEGULAEITY.  245 

ledge  may  shoAV  to  be  regular.  JVorsc  and  coidd  arc  tlic 
fairest  specimens  of  our  irregulars.  Yet  even  coidd 
is  only  an  irregularity  in  the  "written  language.  The 
printer  makes  it,  and  the  printer  can  take  it  away. 
Jlence  the  class,  instead  of  filling  pages,  is  exceedingly 
limited. 


24:Ci  IMPEKSOXAL   VERBS. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 


THK    IMPERSONAL    VKRIi 


§  334.  In  Die-seer?!,.'},  and  me'thinks,  the  me  is  dative 
rather  than  accusative,  Vivnl^ jjiihi  and  fj.oi  rather  than 
me  and  fie. 

§  335.  In  Die-lisiclh,  the  me  is  accusative  rather  than 
dative,  and  =  me  and  /Me  rather  than  ?}iihl  and  fioi. 

For  the  explanation  of  this  diflfercnce  see  Sijufax^ 
Chapter  XXI. 


THE   VERB   SUBSTAXTIVE.  24.7 


CHAPTER    XXYIII. 


THE    VERB    SUKSTAXTIVE. 


>}  v36.  The  verb  substantive  is  generally  dealt  vdtli 
as  an  irregular  verb.  This  is  inaccurate.  The  true 
notion  is  that  the  idea  of  being  or  existing  is  expressed 
by  four  different  verbs,  each  of  "which  is  defective  in 
some  of  its  parts.  The  parts,  however,  that  are  want- 
ing in  one  verb,  arc  made  up  by  the  inflections  of  one  of 
the  others.  There  is,  for  example,  no  prneterite  of  the 
verb  a7n,  and  no  present  of  the  verb  was.  The  absence, 
however,  of  the  present  form  of  icas  is  made  up  by  the 
word  a?n,  and  the  absence  of  the  prretcrite  form  of  am  is 
made  up  by  the  word  teas. 

§  337.  Was  is  defective,  except  in  the  prjeterite 
tense,  where  it  is  found  both  in  the  indicative  and  con- 
i^mctive. 


Indicative. 
Sin<j.  Plnr. 

1.  Was  Were. 

2.  Wast  Were. 

3.  Was  Were. 


Conjunctive. 

Sing.  Plnr. 

1.  Were  Were. 

'i.  Wert  Were. 

?>.  Were  Were. 


In  the  older  stages  of  the  Gothic  languages  the  Avord 
had  both  a  full  conjugation  and  a  regular  one.  In 
Anglo-Saxon  it  had  an  infinitive,  a  participle  present, 
and  a  participle  past.  In  Mocso-Gothic  it  was  inflected 
throughout  with  -s ;  as  visa,  vas,  vesum,  visans.  In 
that  language  it  has  the  power  of  the  Latin  maneo==to 


213  THE  YEim  substantive. 

remain.  The  r  first  appears  in  the  Old  High  Germari , 
n-isf/,  v:as,  wdruj?ies,  wesancr.  In  Norse  the  s  entirely 
disappears,  and  the  "word  is  inflected  with  r  throughout ; 
vera,  var,  vorum,  (fcc. 

§  338.  Beks  inflected  in  Anglo-Saxon  throughout  the 
present  tense,  both  indicative  and  suhjunclivc.  It  is 
found  also  as  an  infinitive,  heon  ;  as  a  gerund,  to  heonne  • 
and  as  a  participle,  hcoiide  ;  in  the  present  English  its 
inflection  is  as  follovrs  : 


Presen,. 

Cc 

>V 

ntctlve. 

linpcrati 

ve. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Sing. 

Plur. 

Be 

Be. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

Be 

Be 

Be 

Be 

— 

— 

I»pt.  To  be. 

Pres. 

P. 

I 

eing. 

Past. 

Part.  Bcea 

§  339.  Tlic  line  in  Milton  hcginmiig  If  thoii  beest  he 
— (P.  L.  b.  ii.),  leads  to  the  notion  that  the  antiquated 
form  heest  is  not  indicative,  but  conjunctive.  Such, 
however,  is  not  the  case  :  hijst  in  Anglo-Saxon  is  in- 
dicative, the  conjunctive  form  being  he6.  And  every 
thing  that  'pretty  bin  (Cymbeline). — Here  the  word  bin  is 
the  conjunctive  plural,  in  Anglo-Saxon  be6n  ;  so  that  the 
words  every  thing  are  to  be  considered  equivalent  to  the 
plural  form  all  things.  The  phrase  in  Latin  would  stand 
thus,  quotquot  pidchra  sint  ;  in  Greclc,  thus,  a  av  KuXa  y. 
The  indicative  plural  is,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  not  beOn,  but 
beo^  and  be6. 

§  340.  In  the  "  Deutsche  Grammatik  "  it  is  stated  that 
the  Anglo-Saxon  forms  Jed,  bist,  bi^,  beor6,  or  be6,  have 
not  a  present  but  a  future  sense  ;  that  whilst  «?;?.  means 
1  am,  bed  means  /  shall  be  ;  and  that  in  the  older  lan- 
guages it  is  only  where  the  form  a7n  is  not  found  that  be 
has  the  power  of  a  present  form.     The  same  root  occurs 


THE   VERB   SUBSTA.VTITE.  219 

in  the  Slavonic  and  Litliuanic  tongues  "witk  the  same 
power  ;  as,  esml  =  /  am  ;  husu  =  /  shall  he,  Lithuania. 
Esmu  =  I  am;  hu]ishu  =  I  shall  he,  Livonic. — Jesm  = 
I  am;  huda  =  I  shall  he,  Slavonic. —  Gse7}i  =  I  am,; 
hudu  =  I  shall  he,  Bohemian.  This,  hoTvevcr,  proves, 
not  that  there  is  in  Anglo-Saxon  a  future  tense,  but  that 
the  word  hc6  has  a  future  sense.  There  is  no  fresh  tense 
where  there  is  no  fresh  form. 

The  following  is  a  specimen  of  the  future  power  of 
hc6n  in  Anglo-Saxon  : — "  Hi  ne  hedb  na  cilde,  so^lice, 
on  domcsdage,  ac  hc6^  swa  micele  menn  sica  swa  hi, 
inigton  he6n  gif  hi  fall  weoxon  on  geicnnlicre  yldeP — - 
iElfric's  Homilies.  "  They  luill  not  he  children,  forsooth, 
on  Domesday,  but  will  he  as  much  (so  muckle)  men  as  they 
might  be  if  they  were  full  grown  (waxen)  in  customary 
age."' 

§  341.  Now,  if  we  consider  the  word  hc6n  like  the 
word  iccortan  (see  §  313)  to  mean  not  so  much  to  he  as  to 
heco?ne,  we  get  an  element  of  the  idea  of  futurity.  Things 
which  are  hecoming  anything  have  yet  something  further 
to  either  do  or  suffer.  Again,  from  the  idea  of  futurity  we 
get  the  idea  of  contingency,  and  this  explains  the  sub- 
junctive power  of  he.  In  English  we  often  say  may  for 
shall,  and  the  same  was  done  in  Anglo-Saxon. 

§  312.  Am. — Of  this  form  it  should  be  stated  that  the 
letter  -ni  is  no  part  of  the  original  word.  It  is  the  sign  of 
the  first  person,  just  as  it  is  in  Greek,  and  several  other 
languages. 

It  should  also  be  stated,  that  although  the  fact  be 
obscured,  and  although  the  changes  be  insufficiently 
accounted  for,  the  forms  am,,  art,  are,  and  is,  arc  not, 
like  am  and  was,  parts  of  different  words,  but  forms  of 
one  and  the  same  Avord  ;  in  other  terms,  that,  although 
between  am  and  he  there  is  no  etymological  connexion. 


250 


TUE  VERB  SUBST^INTIVE. 


there  is  one  between  am  and  is.     This  "we  collect  from  the 
comparison  of  the  Indo-European  languages. 


Sanskrit. 
Zend 
Greek    . 
Latin , 
Lithuauic 
Old  Slavonic 
Moeso-Gotbic . 
Old  Saxon 
Anglo-Saxon  . 
Icelandic    . 
English  . 


1. 

2. 

3. 

Asmi 

Asi 

Asti. 

Ahmi 

A  si 

AshtL 

Elfil 

Efs 

'Eo-rf. 

Sion 

Es 

Ed. 

Esmi 

Essi 

Esti. 

Ycsmy 

Ycsi 

Ycsty. 

Im 

Is 

hi. 

— 

*/s 

1st. 

Eom 

Eart 

Is. 

Em 

Ert 

Er. 

Am 

Art 

Is. 

§  343.  Worth.— In  the  following  lines  of  Scott,  the 
word  wo?'lh=is,  and  is  a  fragment  of  the  regular  Anglo- 
Saxon- verb  ii'cor^an  =  io  he,  or  to  become;  German 
werden. 

Woe  worth  the  chase,  woe  'worth  the  day, 
That  cost  thy  life,  my  gallant  grey. 

LaiJy  of  the  Lake. 


*  Fouud   rarely  ;   bist   being   the   current   form. — "  Deutsche    Gram- 
matik."  i.  89k 


THE  PRESENT  PAETICIPLE.  251 


CHAPTER    XXIX. 


THE    PRESENT    PARTICirLE. 


§  344.  The  present  participle,  called  also  the  active 
participle  and  the  participle  in  -ing,  is  formed  from  the 
origmal  word  by  adding  -ing ;  as,  inovc,  moving.  In 
the  older  languages  the  termination  was  more  marked, 
being  -nd.  Like  the  Latin  participle  in  -ns^  it  was 
originally  declined.  The  Moeso-Gothic  and  Old  High 
German  forms  are  Itahands  and  hapenter  =  having,  re- 
spectively. The  -s  in  the  one  language,  and  the  -er  in 
the  other,  are  the  signs  of  the  case  and  gender.  In  the 
Old  Saxon  and  Anglo-Saxon  the  forms  are  -and  and 
-ande ;  as  bindand,  hindande^=^hinding.  In  all  the 
Xorse  languages,  ancient  and  modern,  the  -d  is  preserved. 
So  it  is  in  the  Old  Lowland  Scotch,  and  in  many  of  the 
modern  provincial  dialects  of  England,  where  strikand, 
goaiid,  is  said  for  striking,  going.  In  Staffordshire, 
Avhere  the  -ing  is  pronounced  -ingg,  there  is  a  fuller 
sound  than  that  of  the  current  English.  In  Old  En^hsh 
tlie  form  in  -nd  is  predominant,  in  Middle  English  the 
use  fluctuates,  and  in  New  English  the  termination  -ing  is 
universal.  In  the  Scotch  of  the  modern  writers  we  find 
the  form  -in. 

The  rising  sun  o'er  Galston  muira 

Wi'  glorious  light  was  gliutin' ; 
The  hares  were  hirplin'  down  the  furs, 

The  lar'rocks  they  were  cliantin'. 

BcRXs'  Ilohj  Fair. 


252  THE    I'RESENT   PAUTICirLE. 

§  345.  It  lias  often  been  remarked  tliut  tlie  participle 
is  used  in  many  languages  as  a  substantive.  Tiiis  is  true 
in  Greek, 

'O  irpd(r(rcci'=lhc  actor,  wlion  a  male. 
'II  Trpa(T(rov(Ta=iIu:  actor,  when  a  female. 
To  irpaTTOv=the  active  principle  of  a  tliinr/. 

But  it  is  'also  stated,  that,  in  tlic  English  language, 
the  participle  is  used  as  a  substantive  in  a  greater  degre(^ 
than  elsewhere,  and  that  it  is  used  in  several  cases  and  it 
both  numbers,  e.  g., 

liisiny  early  is  healthy, 
There  is  health  in  risinr/  early. 
Tliis  is  the  advantage  of  rising  earl^'. 
The  risings  in  the  North,  &c. 

Some  acute  remarks  of  Mr.  R.  Taylor,  in  the  Intxo- 
duction  to  his  edition  of  Tooke's  "  Diversions  of  Purlcy." 
modify  this  view.  According  to  these,  the  -ing  in 
words  like  rising  is  not  the  -ing  of  the  present  pa\  tici- 
ple  ;  neither  has  it  originated  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  -end. 
It  is  rather  the  -ing  in  words  like  7norning  ;  which  is 
anything  but  a  participle  of  the  non-existent  verb  r.iorn. 
and  wdiich  has  originated  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  substan- 
tival termination  -iing.  Upon  this  Rask  writes  as  fol- 
lows : — "  Gitsungi  geroilnung^  desire  ;  swuteliing  ^  ma- 
nifestation ;  clccnsun g  =^  a  cleansing  ;  sceawung=^vieu}. 
contemplation  ;  eor^-beofimg  =  an  earthquake  :  gcsom- 
vtfjig  =  an  asscmbh/.  This  termination  is  chieSy  used 
in  forming  substantives  from  verbs  of  the  first  class  iii 
-inn;  as  halgung  =  consecration,  ivom  Jidlgian-^to  con- 
secrate. These  verbs  are  all  feminiue." — "  Anglo-Saxon 
Orammar,"  p.  107. 

Now,  whatever  may  be  the  theory  of  the  origin  of 
the  termination  -ing  in  old  phrases  like  rising  carlv  is 
12* 


THE   rUESENT  rAIlTIClPLE.  253 

hcallhy.  it  cannot  aj^ply  to  expressions  of  recent  introduc- 
tion. Here  the  direct  origin  in  -ung  is  out  of  the  ques- 
tion. 

The  vicAVj  then,  that  remains  to  be  taken  of  the  forma 
in  question  is  this  : 

1.  That  the  ohlcr  forms  in  -ing  arc  substantival  in 
oriirin.  and  =  the  Anirlo-Saxon  -uns;. 

2.  That  the  latter  ones  are  irregularly  participial,  and 
have  been  formed  on  a  false  analogy. 


254  TUE   PAST   PARTICirLK. 


CHArTER  XXX. 


THE    PAST    PARTICrPLE. 


§  34G.  A.  The  participle  in -bis:. — In  the  Anglo-Sax- 
on tliis  participle  was  declined  like  the  adjectives.  Like 
tlic  adjectives,  it  is,  in  the  present  English,  undeclined. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  it  always  ended  in  -en,  as  sungcn, 
fiindcn,  hunden.  In  English  this  -en  is  often  wanting, 
as  found,  hound  ;  the  word  boiinden  being  antiquated. 

Words  where  the  -en  is  wanting  may  be  viewed  in  two 
lights ;  1,  they  may  be  looked  upon  as  participles  that 
have  lost  their  termination  ;  2,  they  may  be  considered  as 
pri"cterites  with  a  participial  sense. 

§  347.  Drank,  drunk,  drunken. — With  all  words 
wherein  the  vowel  of  the  plural  differs  from  that  of  the 
singular,  the  participle  takes  the  plural  form.  To  say  / 
have  drunk,  is  to  use  an  ambiguous  expression  ;  since 
drunk  may  be  either  a  participle  7nimis  its  termination, 
or  a  preterite  with  a  participial  sense.  To  say  I  have 
drank,  is  to  use  a  pra:terite  for  a  participle.  To  say  J 
have  drunken,  is  to  use  an  unexceptional  form. 

In  all  words  with  a  double  form,  as  spake  and  spoke, 
brake  and  broke,  clave  and  clove,  the  participle  follows  the 
form  in  o,  as  spoken,  broken,  cloven.  Spaken,  braken, 
claven  are  impossible  forms.  There  a/e  degrees  in  laxity 
of  language,  and  to  say  the  spear  is  broke  is  l)ettcr  than 
to  say  tJic.  spear  is  brake. 


THE   PAST   PARTICIPLE.  255 

§  348.  As  a  general  rule,  wc  find  tlic  participle  in  -en 
■wherever  the  prrctcritc  is  strong ;  indeed,  the  participle 
in  -en  may  be  called  the  strong  participle,  or  the  participle 
of  the  strong  conjugation.  Still  the  two  forms  do  not 
ahvays  coincide.  In  mow,  mowed,  moiD?i,  soiv,  sowed, 
sown ;  and  several  other  "words,  we  find  the  participle 
strong,  and  the  preterite  "weak.  I  remember  no  instances 
of  the  converse.  This  is  only  another  way  of  saying  that 
the  prrcterite  has  a  greater  tendency  to  pass  from  strong 
to  weak  than  the  participle. 

§  349.  In  the  Latin  language  the  change  from  s  to  ?; 
and  vice  versa,  is  very  common.  We  have  the  double 
forms  arbor  and  arhos,  honor  and  honos,  6cc.  Of  this 
change  we  have  a  few  specimens  in  English.  The  words 
rear  and  raise,  as  compared  with  each  other,  are 
examples.  In  Anglo-Saxon  a  few  words  undergo  a 
similar  change  in  the  plural  number  of  the  strong  pre- 
terites. 

Ceose,  I  choose  ;  cciis,  I  chose  ;  curou,  we  chose  ;  gccorvn,  chosen. 
Forlcuse,  /  lose ;  forlcas,  /  lost  ;  forluron,  vie  lost  ;  fuiloren,  lost. 
Hreose,  I  rush;  Lreiis,  I ntshcd;  bruroa,  we  rushed;  gehroreu,  rushed. 

This  accounts  for  the  participial  form  forlorn,  or  lost, 
in  New  High  German  verloren.     In  Milton's  lines, 

■ the  piercing  air 


Burns  frore,  and  cold  performs  the  effect  of  fire, 

Paradise  Lost,  b.  iL, 

we  have  a  form  frou:  the  Anglo-Saxon  participle  gcfroren 
=frozen. 

§  350.  B.  The  participle  in  -d,  -t,  or  -ed. — In  the 
Anglo-Saxon  this  participle  was  declined  like  the  adjec- 
tive. Like  tlic  adjective,  it  is,  in  the  present  English, 
undeclined. 


256  THE   PAST  TARTIGIPLE. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  it  differed  in  form  from  the  praeterite, 
inasmucli  as  it  ended  in  -cc/,  or  -t,  Avhereas  the  praeterite 
ended  in  -ode,  -de,  or  -te  :  as,  Infode,  bccrnde,  dijpie,  prae- 
terites  ;  gcliifud,  lamed,  dypt,  participles. 

As  the  ejection  of  the  e  (in  one  case  final  in  the  other 
not)  reduces  words  like  hcerned  and  bccrnde  to  the  same 
form,  it  is  easy  to  account  for  the  present  identity  of  form 
bet^vecn  the  weak  praeterites  and  the  participles  in  -d : 
e  g.,  I  moved,  I  have  moved,  <fcc. 

§  351.  The  prefix  y. — In  the  older  Avriters,  and  in 
works  written,  like  Thomson's  "  Castle  of  Indolence,"  in 
imitation  of  them,  "wc  find  prefixed  to  the  praeterite  parti- 
ciple the  letter  y-,  as,  i/dept  =  called :  i/clad=  clolhed: 
ydrad  =  dreaded. 

The  following  are  the  chief  facts  and  tlie  current  opin- 
ion concerning  this  prefix  : — 

1.  It  has  grown  out  of  the  fuller  forms  ge- :  Anglo- 
Saxon,  ge- :  Old  Saxon,  gi- :  Moeso-Gothic,  ga- :  Old 
High  German,  l:a-,  cha-,  ga-,  ki-,  gi-. 

2.  It  occm'S  in  each  and  all  of  the  Germanic  lanoi;ua<]res 
of  the  Gothic  stock. 

3.  It  occurs,  with  a  few  fragmentary  exceptions,  in 
none  of  the  Scandinavian  languages  of  the  Gothic  stock. 

4.  In  Anglo-Saxon  it  occasionally  indicates  a  difference 
of  sense;  :is,  hliten  ==  called,  ge-\\kiQn=: promised ;  horeii 
=  home,  ^e-boren  ==  horn. 

5.  It  occurs  in  nouns  as  well  as  verbs. 

6.  Its  power,  in  the  case  of  nouns,  is  generally  some 
idea  of  association,  or  collection. — Mocso-Gothic,  si)t'^s  = 
a  journey,  ga-sin\>a  =  a  companion  ;  Old  High  German, 
j)e?'c=hill ;  ki-perki  {gehirgc)==a  range  of  hills. 

7.  But  it  has  also  a//'e^?fC'/«^cr/a"e  power ;  a  frequenta- 
tive power,  Avhich  is,  in  all  probability,  secondary  to  its 
collective  power ;  since  things  wliich  recur  frequently  recur 


THE   TAST   PARTICIPLE.  257 

A^  itli  a  tendency  to  collection  or  association  ;  Middle  High 
German,  ge-rassel=  rustling- ;  ge-riunpcl — c-riimj)le. 

8.  And  it  has  also  the  power  of  expressing  the  pos- 
session of  a  quality. 


nijlo-Saxoti, 

Eugiish. 

Aiic/lo-Saxon. 

Latin. 

Feax 

Hair 

(jc-fiiax 

Com  at  US. 

Hcortc 

Heart 

Gc-hcovt 

Cordatus. 

Stciico 

Odour 

Ge-stcncQ 

Odoriis. 

This  power  is  also  a  collective,  since  every  quality  is  asso- 
ciated with  the  object  that  possesses  it ;  a  sea  ifilh  waves 
=  a  wavy  sea. 

9.  Hence  it  is  probable  that  the  ga-,  hi-,  or  gl-,  Goth- 
ic, is  the  cum  of  Latin  languages.  Such,  at  least,  is 
Grimm's  view,  as  given  in  the  "  Deutsche  Grammatik,"  i. 
lOlG. 

Concerning  this,  it  may  be  said  that  it  is  deficient  in 
an  essential  point.  It  does  not  show  how  the  participle 
past  is  collective.  Undoubtedly  it  may  be  said  that  every 
such  participle  is  in  the  condition  of  words  like  ge-feax 
and  ge-heort  ;  i.  e.,  that  they  imply  an  association  between 
the  object  and  the  action  or  state.  But  this  does  not 
seem  to  be  Grimm's  view ;  he  rather  suggests  that  the  ge 
may  have  been  a  prefix  to  verbs  in  general,  originally  at- 
tached to  all  their  forms,  but  finally  abandoned  every- 
where, except  in  the  case  of  the  participle. 

The  theory  of  this  prefix  has  yet  to  assume  a  satisfac- 
tory form. 


25S  COMPOSITION. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 


COMPOSITION. 


§  352.  In  the  following  Tvords.  amongst  many  otliers, 
we  have  palpable  and  indubitable  specimens  of  composi- 
tion— day-star,  vine-yard,  su7i-heam,  apple-tree,  ship-load, 
silver-smith,  &c.  The  "words  j^alpable  and  indubitable 
have  been  used,  because  in  many  cases,  as  will  be  seen 
hereafter,  it  is  difficult  to  determine  whether  a  word  be  a 
true  compound  or  not. 

§  353.  Now,  in  each  of  the  compounds  quoted  above, 
it  may  be  seen  that  it  is  the  second  word  which  is  quali- 
fied, or  defined,  by  the  first,  and  that  it  is  not  tlie  first 
which  is  qualified,  or  defined,  by  the  second.  Of  yards, 
beams,  trees,  loads,  smiths,  there  may  be  many  sorts,  and, 
in  order  to  determine  what  particular  sort  of  yard,  beam, 
tree,  load,  or  smith,  may  be  meant,  the  words  vine,  snn, 
apple,  ship,  and  silver,  are  prefixed.  In  compound 
words  it  is  the  first  term  that  defines  or  particularises  the 
second. 

§  354.  That  the  idea  given  by  the  Avord  apple-tree 
is  not  referable  to  the  words  apple  and  tree,  irrespective 
of  the  order  in  which  the}'  occur,  may  be  seen  by  re- 
versing the  position  of  tliem.  The  word  tree-apple. 
although  not  existing  in  the  language,  is  as  correct  a 
word  as  thorn-apple.  In  tree-apple^  the  particular  sort 
of  apple  meant  is  denoted  by  the  word  tree,  and  if  there 


coMrosiTiox.  259 

■were  in  our  gardens  various  sorts  of  plants  called  apples, 
of  Avliich  some  gre^Y  along  tlic  ground  and  others  upon 
trees,  such  a  word  as  tree-apple  would  bo  required  in 
order  to  be  opposed  to  eartJi-applc,  or  growid-applo,  or 
some  word  of  the  kind. 

In  the  compound  words  tree-apple  and  apple-tree,  Ave 
have  the  same  elements  differently  arranged.  However, 
as  the  word  tree-apple  is  not  current  in  the  language, 
the  class  of  compounds  indicated  by  it  may  seem  to 
be  merely  imaginary.  Nothing  is  farther  from  being 
the  case.  A  tree-rose  is  a  rose  of  a  particular  sort. 
The  generality  of  roses  being  on  shrubs,  this  grows  on  a 
tree.  Its  peculiarity  consists  in  this  fact,  and  tiiis 
particular  character  is  expressed  by  the  word  tree 
prefixed.  A  rose-tree  is  a  tree  of  a  particular  sort, 
distinguished  from  apple-trees,  and  trees  in  general  (in 
other  words,  particularised  or  defined),  by  the  word  tree 
prefixed. 

A  grouud-iint  is  a  nut  particularised  by  growing  in 
the  ground.  A  nut-ground  itj  -a  ground  particularised  by 
producing  nuts. 

A  finger-ring,  as  distinguished  from  an  car-ring,  and 
from  rings  in  general  (and  so  particularised),  is  a  ring 
for  the  finger.  A  ring-finger,  as  distinguished  from  fore- 
fingers, and  from  fingers  in  general  (and  so  particular- 
ised), is  a  finger  whereon  i'ings  are  worn. 

§  355.  At  times  this  rule  seems  to  be  violated.  The 
Avords  spit-fire  and  dare-devil  seem  exceptions  to  it. 
At  the  first  glance  it  seems,  in  the  case  of  a  spit-fire, 
that  Avhat  he  (or  she)  spits  is  fire  ;  and  that,  in  the  case 
of  a  dare-devil,  what  he  (or  she)  dares  is  the  devil.  In 
this  case  the  initial  Avords  spit  and  dare  are  particu- 
larised by  the  final  ones  fire  and  devil.  The  true 
idea,   liOAvevcr,   confirms   the   original  rule.     A  spit-fire 


2G0  COMPOSITION. 

voids  liis  five  l)y  spitting.  A  dare-devil,  in  meeting 
the  fiend,  would  not  slirink  from  liim,  but  Avould 
defy  him,  A  spit-fire  is  not  one  -who  spits  fire,  but 
one  "wliosc  fire  is  spit.  A  dare-devil  is  not  one  who 
dares  even  the  devil,  but  one  by  Avhom  the  devil  is  even 
dared. 

§  35G.  Of.  the  two  elements  of  a  compound  Avord, 
which  "is  the  most  important  ?  In  one  sense  the  latter, 
in  another  sense  the  former.  The  latter  word  is  the 
most  essential ;  since  the  general  idea  of  trees  must  exist 
before  it  can  be  defined  or  particularised ;  so  becoming 
the  idea  which  we  have  in  apple-tree,  rose-tree,  &c. 
The  former  word,  however,  is  the  most  injluential. 
It  is  by  this  that  the  original  idea  is  qualified. 
The  latter  word  is  the  staple  original  element :  the 
former  is  the  superadded  influencing  element.  Com- 
pared with  each  otlier,  the  former  element  is  active, 
the  latter  passive.  Etymologically  speaking,  the  for- 
mer element,  in  English  compounds,  is  the  most  im- 
portant. 

§  357.  Most  numerous  are  the  observations  that  bear 
upon  the  detail  of  the  composition  of  words;  e.g., 
how  nouns  combine  with  nouns,  as  in  swi-beam ; 
nouns  with  verbs,  as  in  dare-devil,  &c.  It  is  thought 
however,  sufficient  in  the  present  Avork  to  be  content 
with,  1.  defining  the  meaning  of  the  term  composi- 
tion ;  2.  explaining  the  nature  of  some  obscure  com- 
pounds. 

Composition  is  the  joining  together,  in  language,  of 
two  dijfercnt  words,  and  treating  the  combination  as  a 
single  term.     Observe  the  Avords  in  italics. 

In  language. — A  groat  number  of  our  compouuds, 
like  the  Avord  merry-making,  are  divided  by  the  sign  -, 
or  the  hyphen.     It  is  very  plain  that  if  all  Avords  sj)eU 


COMPOSITION.  261 

\^ith  a  hyphen  were  to  be  considered  as  compounds, 
the  formation  of  them  woukl  be  not  a  matter  of  speech, 
or  language,  but  one  of  Avriting  or  spelling.  This  dis- 
tinguishes compounds  in  language  from  mere  printers' 
compounds. 

Tivo.— For  this,  see  §  3G9. 

Different. — In  Old  High  German  -we  find  the  form 
selp-s'elpo.  Here  there  is  the  junction  of  two  words,  but 
not  the  junction  of  two  different  ones.  This  distin- 
guishes composition  from  gemination. 

Words. — In  fathers,  dear-er,  foiir-th,  &c.,  there  is 
the  addition  of  a  letter  or  a  syllable,  and  ir  may  be  even 
of  the  part  of  a  word.  There  is  no  addition,  however,  of 
a  whole  word.  This  distinguishes  composition  from  de- 
rivation. 

Treating  the  combination  as  a  single  term. — In  de- 
termuiing  between  derived  words  and  compound  words, 
there  is  an  occasional  perplexity;  the  perplexity,  however, 
is  far  greater  in  determining  between  a  compound  word 
and  txco  words.  In  the  eyes  of  one  grammarian  the  term 
mountain  height  may  be  as  truly  a  compound  word  as 
sun-hcam.  In  the  eyes  of  another  grammarian  it  may  be 
no  compomid  word,  but  two  words,  just  as  Alpine  height 
is  two  words  ;  moimtain  being  dealt  with  as  an  adjective. 
It  is  in  the  determination  of  this  that  the  accent  plays  an 
important  part. 

§  358.  As  a  preliminary  to  a  somewhat  subtle  distinc- 
tion, the  attention  of  the  reader  is  drawn  to  the  followins: 
line,  shghtly  altered,  from  Churchill : — 

"  Then  rest,  my  fileml,  aiid  sjxire  thy  precious  breath." 

On  each  of  the  syllables  rest,  friend,  spare,  prec-, 
breath,   there   is   an   accent.      Each  of   these   syllables 


2G2  COMPOSITION. 

must  be  compared  Avitli  tlic  one  that  precedes  it;  rest 
"with  then,  friend  with  my,  and  so  on  throughout  the  line. 
Compared  Avith  the  word  and,  the  word  spare  is  not 
only  accented,  but  the  accent  is  conspicuous  and  pro- 
minent. There  is  so  little  on  and,  so  mucli  on  spare,  that 
the  disparity  of  accent  is  very  manifest. 

Now,  if  in  the  place  of  and,  there  were  some  other 
word,  a  word  not  so  much  accented  as  spare,  but  still 
more  accented  than  and,  this  disparity  wouhl  be  dimi- 
nished, aod  the  accents  of  the  two  words  might  be  said 
to  be  at  par,  or  nearly  so.  As  said  before,  the  line  was 
slightly  altered  from   Churchill,  the  real   reading  being 

"  Tlien  rost,  my  frieml,  spare,  spare  thy  precious  bri'-ith." 

In  the  true  reading  we  actually  find  what  had  previously 
only  been  supposed.  In  the  words  spare,  spare,  the 
accents  are  nearly  at  ^:>ar.  Such  the  difference  between 
accent  at  par  and  disparity  of  accent. 

Good  illustrations  of  the  parity  and  disparity  of  ac- 
cent may  be  drawn  from  certain  names  of  places.  Let 
there  be  such  a  sentence  as  the  following  :  the  lime  house 
near  the  bridge  north  of  the  new  port.  Compare  tlic 
parity  of  accent  on  the  pairs  of  words  Zime  and  house, 
bridge  and  north,  new  and  port,  with  the  disparity  of 
accent  in  the  compound  words  Limehouse,  Bridgenorth, 
and  Newport.  The  separate  words  beef  steak,  where 
the  accent  is  nearly  at  jyar,  compared  with  the 
compound  word  srveepstakes,  where  there  is  a  great  dis- 
parity of  accent,  are  further  illustrations  of  the  same  dif- 
ference. 

The  difference  between  a  compound  word  and  a  pair 
of  words  is  further  illustrated  by  comparing  such  terms 
fts    the    following : — black   bird,    meanino-    a    bii'd    that 


COMPOSITION.  263 

is  black,  Avltli  blackbird  =  the  Latin  merula ;  blue 
btlU  meaning  a  bell  that  is  blue,  Avith  bluebell,  the 
flower.  Expressions  like  a  sJiarp  edged  instrument, 
meaning  an  instrument  that  is  sharp  and  has  edges, 
as  opposed  to  a  sharp-edged  instrument,  meaning  an 
instrument  vith  sJiarp  edges,  further  exemplify  this 
diflerence. 

Subject  to  a  few  exceptions,  it  may  be  laid  down, 
that,  in  the  English  language,  there  is  no  composition 
unless  there  is  either  a  change  of  form  or  a  cJiange  of 
accent. 

§  359.  The  reader  is  now  informed,  that  unless  he  has 
taken  an  exception  to  either  a  statement  or  an  inference, 
he  has  either  seen  beyond  Avhat  has  been  already  laid 
down  by  the  author,  or  else  has  read  him  with  insuf- 
ficient attention.  This  may  be  shown  by  drawing  a 
distinction  between  a  compound  form  and  a  compound 
idea. 

In  the  words  a  red  house,  each  word  preserves  its 
natural  and  original  meaning,  and  the  statement  sug- 
gested by  the  term  is  that  a  house  is  red.  By  a  parity 
of  reasoning  a  mad  house  should  mean  a  house  that  is 
mad;  and  provided  that  each  word  retain  its  natural 
vieaning  and  its  natural  accent,  such  is  the  fact.  Let  a 
house  mean,  as  it  often  does,  afamili/.  Then  the  phrase, 
a  mad  house,  means  that  the  house,  or  fajnily,  is  viad, 
just  as  a  red  house  means  that  the  house  is  red.  Such, 
however,  is  not  the  current  meaning  of  the  word.  Every 
one  knows  that  a  mad  house  means  a  house  for  mad  men; 
in  which  case  it  is  treated  as  a  compound  word,  and  has 
a  marked  accent  on  the  first  syllable,  just  as  Lime- 
house  has.  Now,  compared  with  the  word  red  house, 
meaning  a  house  of  a  red  colour,  and  compared  with  the 
words  mad  liou.se,  meaning  a  deranged  family,  the  word 


2CA  COMPOSITION. 

inlidhousc^  in  its  common  sense,  expressed  a  compound 
idea ;  as  opposed  to  two  ideas,  or  a  double  idea.  The 
word  berf  steak  is  evidently  a  compound  idea ;  but  as 
there  is  no  disparity  of  accent,  it  is  not  a  compound 
word.  Its  sense  is  compound.  Its  form  is  not  compound 
hut  double.  This  indicates  the  objection  anticipated, 
•which  is  this :  viz.,  that  a  definition,  -which  would 
exclude  such  a  word  as  beef  steak  from  the  list  of  com- 
pounds, is,  for  that  very  reason,  exceptionable.  I  answer 
to  this,  that  the  term  in  question  is  a  compound  idea, 
and  not  a  compound  form ;  in  other  words,  that  it  is  a 
compound  in  logic,  but  not  a  compound  in  etymology. 
Now  etymology,  taking  cognisance  of  forms  only,  has 
nothing  to  do  with  ideas,  except  so  for  as  they  influence 
forms. 

Such  is  the  commentary  upon  the  words,  treating 
the  combination  as  a  single  term ;  in  other  words,  such 
the  difference  between  a  compound  word  and  two 
words.  The  rule,  being  repeated,  stands  (subject  to 
exceptions  indicated  above)  thus : — there  is  no  true 
composition  without  either  a  change  of  form  or  a  change 
of  accent. 

§  360.  xVs  I  wish  to  be  clear  upon  this  pomt,  I  shall 
illustrate  the  statement  by  its  application. 

The  term  tree-rose  is  often  pronounced  tree  r6se  ; 
that  is,  with  the  accent  at  jyar.  It  is  compound  in  the 
one  case  ;  it  is  a  pair  of  words  in  the  other. 

The  terms  mountain  ash  and  mountain  height  are 
generally  (perhaps  always)  pronounced  with  an  equal 
accent  on  the  syllables  mount-  and  ash,  mount-  and 
height,  respectirel3^  In  this  case  the  word  Qnountain 
must  be  dealt  \<\i\\  as  an  adjective,  and  the  words  con- 
sidered as  two.  The  word  moiintain  wave  is  often 
pronounced  with   a  visible  diminution  of  accent  on  the 


COMPOSITION",  265 

last  syllable,     In  this  case  tlierc  is  a  disparity  of  accent, 
and  the  ■word  is  compound. 

§  361.  The  following  (j^uotation  indicates  a  further 
cause  of  perplexity  in  determining  between  compound 
words  and  two  words  : — 


1. 
A  wet  sheet  auil  a  blowing  gale, 

A  breeze  that  follows  fast ; 
That  fills  the  wliite  and  swelling  sail, 
And  bends  the  gallant  mast. 

All.\x  CcxxrxcnAM. 


Britannia  neeiis  no  bulwarks, 

No  towers  along  the  steep ; 
Her  march  is  o'er  the  mou7itaiii-icave. 

Her  home  is  on  the  deep. 

TuoitAS  Campbell. 


To  speak  first  of  the  term  gallant  mast.  Ji  gallant 
mean  brave,  there  are  tivo  words.  If  the  words  be  two, 
there  is  a  stronger  accent  on  7nast.  If  the  accent  on 
mast  be  stronger,  the  rhyme  vi'iiXxfast  is  more  complete  ; 
in  other  words,  the  metre  favours  the  notion  of  the 
words  being  considered  as  tioo.  Gallant-m,ast,  however, 
is  a  compound  wokI,  with  an  especial  nautical  meaning. 
In  this  case  the  accent  is  stronger  on  gal-  and  weaker 
on  -mast.  This,  however,  is  not  the  state  of  things 
that  the  metre  favours.  The  same  applies  to  mountain 
icave.  The  same  person  who  in  prose  would  throw  a 
stronger  accent  on  m,onnt-  and  a  weaker  one  on  wave 
(so  dealing  with  the  word  as  a  compound),  might,  in  poetry, 
make  the  words  two,  by  giving  to  the  last  syllable  a  parity 
of  accent. 

The  following  quotation  from  Ben  Jonson  may  be 
13 


266  coMPOSiTioif. 

read  in   twc  ways ;  and  tlic  accent  may  vary  ■witli  the 
reading : 

1. 

Lay  thy  bow  of  pearl  apart, 
And  thy  /silver  shlnhtg  quiver. 

2 

Lay  tliy  bow  of  pearl  apart, 
And  thy  sUvcr-shining  quiver. 

C'l/nthia's  Revels. 

§  362.  On  ccrtabi  loords  wherein  the  fact  of  their 
being  compomid  is  obscured. — Composition  is  tlie  addi- 
tion of  a  -word  to  a  word,  derivation  is  the  addition  of 
certain  letters  or  syllables  to  a  word.  In  a  compound 
form  eacli  element  has  a  separate  and  independent  exist- 
ence ;  in  a  derived  form,  only  one  of  the  elements  has 
such.  Now  it  is  very  possible  that  in  an  older  stage  of 
a  language  two  words  may  exist,  may  be  put  together, 
and  may  so  form  a  compound,  each  word  having,  then, 
a  separate  and  independent  existence.  In  a  later  stage 
of  language,  however,  only  one  of  these  words  may 
have  a  separate  and  independent  existence,  the  other 
having  become  obsolete.  In  this  case  a  compound  word 
would  take  the  appearance  of  a  derived  one,  since  but 
one  of  its  elements  could  be  exhibited  as  a  separate 
and  independent  word.  Such  is  the  case  with,  amongst 
others,  the  word  bishop-i'ic.  In  the  present  language 
the  word  ric  has  no  separate  and  independent  exist- 
ence. For  all  this,  the  Avord  is  a  true  compound, 
since,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  we  have  the  noun  rice  as 
a  separate,  independent  word,  signifying  kingdom  or 
dotnain. 

Again,  without  becoming  obsolete,  a  word  may  alter 
its  form.     This  is  the  case  with  most  of  our  adjectives 


COMPOSITION,  2G7 

in  'ly.  Ki  present  they  appear  derivative  ;  their  ter- 
mination -ly  haA-ing  no  separate  and  independent  exist- 
ence. The  older  language,  however,  shows  that  they  are 
compounds ;  since  -ly  is  nothing  else  than  -lie,  Anglo- 
Saxon  :  -Uh,  Old  High  German  ;  -leiks,  Moeso-Gothic  ;  = 
like,  or  si  mil  is,  and  equally  with  it  an  independent  separate 
word. 

§  363.  "  Subject  to  a  fevf  exceptions,  it  may  be  laid 
down,  that  fhere  is  no  true  composition  unless  there  is 
either  a  change  of  form  or  a  change  of  accent  P — Such  is 
the  statement  made  in  §  358.  The  first  class  of  excep- 
tions consists  of  those  words  where  the  natural  tendency 
to  disparity  of  accent  is  traversed  by  some  rule  of 
euphony.  For  example,  let  two  words  be  put  together, 
which  at  their  point  of  contact  form  a  combination  of 
sounds  foreign  to  our  habits  of  pronunciation.  The 
rarity  of  the  combination  will  cause  an  effort  in  utter- 
ance. The  effort  in  utterance  will  cause  an  accent  to 
be  laid  on  the  latter  half  of  the  compound.  This  will 
equalize  the  accent,  and  abolish  the  disparity.  The 
word  monkshood,  the  name  of  a  flower  {aconitnm  na- 
pellus),  where,  to  my  ear  at  least,  there  is  quite  as  much 
accent  on  the  -hood  as  on  the  monks-,  may  serve  in  the 
way  of  illustration.  Monks  is  one  word,  hood  another. 
"When  joined  together,  the  h-  of  the  -hood  is  put  in  im- 
mediate apposition  with  the  5  of  the  monks-.  Hence 
tlie  combination  monkshood.  At  the  letters  5  and  h  is 
the  poin*  of  contact.  Now  the  sound  of  5  followed  im- 
mediately by  the  sound  of  ^  is  a  true  aspirate.  But 
true  aspirates  are  rare  in  the  English  language.  Being 
of  rare  occurrence,  the  pronunciation  of  them  is  a  matter 
of  attention  and  effort ;  and  this  attention  and  effort 
sreate    an    accent  which    otherwise    would    be    absent. 


2G8  COMPOSITION. 

Ilencc    words    like    inonks-hood,    loell-head,   and    some 
others. 

Real  reduplications  of  consonants,  as  in  h6p-2)6le,  may 
have  the  same  parity  of  accent  with  the  true  aspirates : 
and  for  the  same  reasons.  They  arc  rare  combinations 
that  require  effort  and  attention. 

5  3G4.  The  second  class  of  exceptions  contains  those 
words  Avherein  between  the  first  element  and  the  second 
there  is  so  great  a  disparity,  cither  in  the  length  of  the 
vowel,  or  the  length  of  the  syllable  en  masse,  as  to  coun- 
teract the  natural  tendency  of  the  first  element  to  become 
accented.  One  of  the  few  specimens  of  this  class  (which 
after  all  may  consist  of  double  words)  is  the  term  upstand- 
iiig.  Here  it  should  be  remembered,  that  words  like 
haphcizard,  foolhlirdij,  upholder,  and  wilhhcld  come 
under  the  first  class  of  the  exceptions. 

§  365.  The  third  class  of  exceptions  contains  words 
like  perchance  and  perhaps.  In  all  respects  but  one 
these  are  double  words,  just  as  hy  chance  is  a  double 
word.  Per,  however,  differs  from  hy  in  having  no  sepa- 
rate existence.  This  sort  of  w^ords  Ave  owe  to  the  multi- 
plicity of  elements  (classical  and  Gothic)  in  the  English 
lan2;ua<2;e. 

§  36G.  Peacock,  peahen. — If  these  words  be  rendered 
masculine  or  feminine  by  the  addition  of  the  elements 
•cock  and  -hen,  the  statements  made  in  the  beginning  of 
the  present  chapter  are  invalidated.  Since,  if  the  word 
pea-  be  particularized,  qualified,  or  defined  by  the  words 
-cock  and  -hen,  the  second  term  defines  or  particularises 
the  first,  which  is  contrary  to  the  rule  of  §  350.  The 
truth,  however,  is,  that  the  words  -cock  and  -hen  are 
defined  by  the  prefix  pea-.  Preparatory  to  the  exhibi- 
tion of  this,  let  us  remember  that  the  word  pea  (although 


coML'OsiTiox.  269 

now  found  ia  composition  only)  is  a  true  and  indepen- 
dent substantive,  the  name  of  a  species  of  fo-wl,  like 
Ithcasant,  partridge,  or  any  other  appellation.  It  is  the 
Latin  pavo,  German  jifcm.  Now  if  the  word  peacock 
mean  a  j)ea  {pfaii  or  jjavo)  that  is  a  male,  then  do  wood- 
cock, black-cock,  and  hantanv-cock,  mean  icoods,  blacks, 
and  bantams  that  arc  male.  Or  if  the  word  peahen 
mean  a  pea  {pfciu  or  ^^avo)  that  is  female,  then  do 
moorhen  and  gitinealien  mean  moors  and  guineas  that  are 
female.  Again,  if  a  jyeahen  mean  a  pea  {jlfan  or  pavo) 
that  is  female,  then  does  the  compound  pheasant-hen 
mean  the  same  as  hen-pheasant ;  Avhich  is  not  the  case. 
The  fact  is  that  peacock  means  a  cock  that  is  a  pea 
{pfan  or  pavo) ;  peahe7i  means  a  hen  that  is  a  pea  {pfau 
or  jyavo) ;  and,  finally,  peafowl  means  a  fowl  that  is  a 
pea  {pfau  or  pavo).  In  the  same  way  moorfowl  means, 
not  a  vioor  that  is  connected  icith  a  fowl,  but  a  fowl  that 
is  co7inected  with  a  tnoor. 

§  367.  It  must  be  clear  that  in  every  compound  Avord 
there  are,  at  least,  two  parts  ;  i.  e.,  the  whole  or  part 
of  the  original,  and  the  whole  or  part  of  the  superadded 
Avord.  In  the  most  perfect  forms  of  inflection,  how- 
ever, there  is  a  third  element,  viz.,  a  vowel,  conso- 
nant, or  syllable  thot  joins  the  first  word  with  the 
second. 

In  the  older  forms  of  all  the  Gothic  languages  the 
presence  of  this  third  element  was  the  rule  rather  than 
the  exception.  In  the  present  English  it  exists  in  but  few 
words. 

a.  The  -a-  in  bluck-a-moor  is  possibly  such  a  connect- 
ing element. 

b.  The  -in-  in  night-in-gale  is  most  probably  such  a 
connecting  element.     Compare  the  German  form  nacht- 


270  COMPOSITION. 

i-gale,  aii'.l  reiueniljci-  the  tendency  of  vowels  to  take  tlio 
sound  of  -ng  before  g. 

§  3G8.  Improper  compounds. — The  -5-  in  vrords  like 
Thur-s-day..  Jinnt-s-man,  may  be  one  of  two  things. 

a.  It  may  be  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case,  so  that 
Thursday  =  Thar  is  dies.  In  this  case  the  word  is  an 
i?7iproper  compound,  since  it  is  like  the  word  pater-fami- 
lias  in  Latin,  in  a  common  state  of  syntactical  construc- 
tion. 

b.  It  may  be  a  connecting  sound,  like  the  -i-  in  nacht- 
i-galc.  Reasons  for  this  view  occur  in  the  following 
fact : — 

In  the  modern  German  languages  the  genitive  case  of 
feminine  nouns  ends  otherwise  than  in  -s.  Nevertheless, 
the  sound  of  -s-  occurs  in  composition  equally,  whether  the 
noun  it  follows  be  masculine  or  feminine.  This  fact,  as 
far  as  it  goes,  makes  it  convenient  to  consider  the  sound 
in  question  as  a  connective  rather  than  a  case.  Probably, 
it  is  neither  one  nor  the  other  exactly,  but  the  effect  of  a 
false  analogy. 

§  3G9.  Decomposites. — "  Composition  is  the  joining 
together  of  two  words." — See  §  357. 

Words  like  tnid-ship-man,  gcntle-man-like,  &c.,  where 
the  number  of  verbal  elements  seems  to  amount  to  three, 
are  no  exception  to  this  rule  ;  since  compound  radicals 
like  97iidship  and  gentleman,  are,  for  the  purposes  of  com- 
position, single  words.  Compounds  wherein  one  element 
is  compound  are  called  decomposites. 

§  370.  There  are  a  number  of  words  Avhich  are  never 
found  by  themselves ;  or,  if  so  found,  have  never  the 
same  sense  that  they  have  in  combination.  Mark  the 
word  combination.  The  terms  in  question  are  points  of 
combination,  not  of  composition  :  since  they  form  not  the 


COMPOSITION.  271 

parts  of  words,  but  the  parts  of  phrases.  Such  are  the 
expressions  time  and  tide — miglit  and  onain — rede  me 
my  riddle — j)^y  your  shot — rhyme  and  reason,  <fcc. 
These  "words  are  evidently  of  the  same  chiss,  though  not  of 
the  same  species  with  bishopric,  colewort,  spillikin,  g'ossip, 
mainswearer,  (fcc. 

These  last-mentioned  terms  give  us  obsolete  words  pre- 
served in  composition.  The  former  give  us  obsolete  worda 
preserved  in  combination. 


272  DERIVATION   AND  INFLECTION. 


CHAPTER   XXXII. 

ON    DERIVATION    AXD     IXFLECTION. 

§  371.  Derivation,  like  etymology,  is  a  ^vord  used  in 
a  Avide  and  in  a  limited  sense.  In  tlie  Avide  sense  of  tlic 
term,  every  "word,  except  it  be  in  the  simple  form  of  a 
root,  is  a  derived  word.  In  tins  sense  the  cases,  numbers, 
and  genders  of  nouns,  the  persons,  moods,  and  tenses  of 
verbs,  the  ordinal  numbers,  the  diminutives,  and  even  the 
compound  words,  are  alike  luatters  of  derivation.  In  the 
wide  sense  of  the  term  the  word  fathers,  from  father,  is 
equally  in  a  state  of  derivation  with  the  word  strength 
from  strong. 

In  the  use  of  the  word,  even  in  its  limited  sense,  there 
is  considerable  laxity  and  uncertainty. 

Gender,  number,  case. — These  have  been  called  the 
accidents  of  the  noun,  and  these  it  has  been  agreed  to 
separate  from  derivation  in  its  stricter  sense,  or  from 
derivation  properly  so  called,  and  to  class  together  under 
the  name  of  declension.     Nouns  are  declined. 

Person,  number,  tense,  voice. — These  have  been  called 
tlie  accidents  of  a  verb,  and  these  it  has  been  agreed 
to  separate  from  derivation  properly  so  called,  and  to 
class  together  under  the  name  of  conjugation.  Verbs  are 
fonjiigated. 

Conjugation  and  declension  constitute  inflection. 
Nouns  and  verbs,  speaking  generally,  are  inflected. 


DERIVATION   AND   INFLECTION,  273 

Inflection,  a  part  of  derivation  in  its  -wider  sense,  is 
separated  from  derivation  properly  so  called,  or  from  de- 
rivation in  its  limited  sense. 

The  degrees  of  comparison,  or  certain  derived  forms 
of  adjectives  ;  the  ordinals,  or  certain  derived  forms  of 
the  numerals  ;  the  diminutives,  (fcc,  or  certain  dei-ived 
forms  of  the  substantive,  have  been  separated  from  deri- 
vation properly  so  called,  and  considered  as  parts  of  in- 
flection. I  am  not  certain,  however,  that  for  so  doing 
there  is  any  better  reason  than  mere  convenience. 

Derivation  proper,  the  subject  of  the  present  chapter, 
comprises  all  the  changes  that  words  undergo,  which  arc 
not  referable  to  some  of  the  preceding  heads.  As  such, 
it  is,  in  its  details,  a  Avider  field  than  even  composition, 
The  details,  however,  are  not  entered  into. 

§  372.  Derivation  proper  may  be  divided  according  to 
a  variety  of  principles.     Amongst  others — 

1.  According-  to  the  evidence. — In  the  evidence  that  a 
Avord  is  not  simple,  but  derived,  there  are  at  least  two 
degrees. 

a.  That  the  word  strength  is  a  derived  word  I  collect 
to  a  certainty  from  the  word  strong,  an  independent  form, 
wliich  I  can  separate  from  it.  Of  the  nature  of  the  word 
strength  there  is  the  clearest  evidence,  or  evidence  of  the 
first  degree. 

h.  Fowl,  hail,  nail,  sail,  tail,  soul;  in  Anglo-Saxon, 

fiigel,  hcBgel,  na;gel,  segel,  tagcl,  sawel. — These  words 

are  by  the  best  grammarians  considered  as   derivatives. 

Now,  with  these  words  I  cannot  do  what  was  done  Avith 

the  Avord  strength,  I  cannot   take  from  them  the   part 

Avhich  I  look  upon  as  the  derivational  addition,  and  after 

that  leave  an  independent  Avord.     Strength  -th  is  a  true 

Avord ;  fowl  or  fugel  -I  is  no  true  Avord.     If  I  believe 

1  o# 


27-i  DERIVATION   AND   IXFLECTION. 

these  latter  Avorils  to  be  derivations  at  all,  I  do  it  be* 
cause  I  find  in  words  like  harelle,  &c.,  the  -I  as  a  deriva- 
tional addition.  Yet,  as  the  fact  of  a  word  being  some- 
times used  as  a  derivational  addition  docs  not  pi'cclude  it 
from  being  at  other  times  a  part  of  the  root,  the  evidence 
that  the  words  in  question  are  not  simple,  but  derived, 
is  not  cogent.  •  In  other  words,  it  is  evidence  of  the  sec- 
ond degree. 

II.  According  to  the  effect. — The  syllable  -en  in  the 
word  ivJdten  changes  the  noun  wliite  into  a  verb.  This  is 
its  effect.  We  may  so  classify  derivational  forms  as  to 
arrange  combinations  like  -en  (whose  effect  is  to  give  the 
idea  of  the  verb)  in  one  order ;  whilst  combinations  like 
-th  (whose  effect  is,  as  in  the  word  stroigth,  to  give  the 
idea  of  abstraction)  form  another  order. 

III.  According  to  the  form. — Sometimes  the  deriva- 
tional element  is  a  vowel  (as  the  -ie  in  doggie),  some- 
times a  consonant  (as  the  -th  in  strength),  sometimes 
a  vowel  and  consonant  combined ;  in  other  words  a 
syllable  (as  the  -en,  in  tvhiten),  sometimes  a  change 
of  vowel  without  any  addition  (as  the  -i  in  tip,  com- 
pared with  top),  sometimes  a  change  of  consonant 
without  any  addition  (as  the  z  in  prize,  compared 
with  price).  Sometimes  it  is  a  change  of  accent,  like  a 
survey,  comj)ared  with  to  survey.  To  classify  deriva- 
tions in  this  manner,  is  to  classify  them  according  to  their 
form. 

IV.  According  to  the  historical  origin  of  the  deriva- 
tional elements. 

V.  According  to  the  number  of  the  derivational  ele- 
ments.— In  fisher,  as  compared  with^s/i,  there  is  but  one 
derivational  affix.  In  fishery,  as  compared  with  fish,  the 
number  of  derivational  elements  is  two. 


DERIVATION  A.N'D   INFLECTION.  275 

§  373  In  words  like  bishopric,  and  many  others  men- 
tioned in  the  last  Chapter,  >ve  had  compound  Avords  under 
the  appearance  of  derived  ones;  in  words  like  upmost, 
and  many  others,  we  have  derivation  under  the  appear- 
ance of  composition. 


276  ADVERBS. 


CITArTER    XXXIII. 


§  374.  Adverbs. — The  adverbs  arc  capable  of  being 
classified  after  a  variety  of  principles. 

Firstly,  tliey  may  be  divided  according  to  their  mean- 
ing. In  this  case  wc  speak  of  the  adverbs  of  time,  place, 
mimhcr,  manner. 

§  375.  Well,  better,  ill,  icorse. — Here  \\Q  have  a  class 
of  adverbs  expressive  of  degree,  or  intensity.  Adverbs 
of  this  kind  are  capable  of  taking  an  inflection,  viz.,  that 
of  the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees. 

Now,  then,  here,  there. — In  the  idea  expressed  by 
these  -words  there  are  no  degrees  of  intensity.  Adverbs 
of  this  kind  are  incapable  of  taking  any  inflection. 

Adverbs  differ  from  nouns  and  verbs  in  being  suscepti- 
ble of  one  sort  of  inflection  only,  viz.,  that  of  degree. 

§  37G.  Secondly,  adverbs  may  be  divided  according  to 
their  form  and  origin. 

Better,  worse. — Here  the  words  are  sometimes  ad- 
verbs;  sometimes  adjectives. —  This  book  is  better  than 
that — here  better  agrees  "with  booh,  and  is,  therefore,  ad- 
jectival. This  looks  better  than  that  — here  better  quali- 
fies looks,  and  is  therefore  adverbial.  Again ;  to  do  a  thing 
until  violence  is  equivalent  to  do  a  tiling  violently. 
This  shovrs  how  adverbs  may  arise  out  of  cases.  In 
words  like  the  English  better,  the  Latin  vi=  violenter, 
the  Greek   kuXov  —  KaXa)<;,  we   have    adjectives    in    their 


ADVERBS.  277 

degrees,  and  substantives  iu  tlicir  cases,  with  adverbial 
powers.  In  other  words,  nouns  are  deflected  from  their 
natural  sense  to  an  adverbial  one.  Adverbs  of  this  kind 
arc  adverbs  of  drjlection. 

Brightly,  bravely. — Here  an  adjective  is  rendered 
adverbial  by  the  addition  of  the  derivative  syllable  -ly. 
Adverbs  like  brig/Uly,  6cc.,  may  be  called  adverbs  of 
derivation. 

Now. — This  word  has  not  satisfactorily  been  shown  to 
have  originated  as  any  other  part  of  speech  but  as  an  ad- 
verb.    Words  of  this  sort  are  adverbs  absolute. 

§  3TT.  TF7iew,  now,  ivell,  ivorse,  better — here  the  ad- 
verbial expression  consists  in  a  single  word,  and  is  sifn- 
pie.  To-day,  yesterday,  not  at  all,  somewhat — here  the 
adverbial  expression  consists  of  a  compound  word,  or 
a  phrase.  This  mdicates  the  division  of  adverbs  into 
simple  and  comple.T. 

§  378.  Adverbs  of  deflection  may  originally  have 
been — 

a.  Substantive ;  as  needs  in  such  expressions  as  1 
needs  must  go. 

b.  Adjectives  ;  as  the  su)i  shi/ies  bright. 

c.  Prepositions ;  as  /  go  in,  we  go  out ;  though,  it 
should  be  added,  that  in  this  case  we  may  as  reasonably 
derive  the  preposition  from  the  adverb  as  the  adverb  from 
the  preposition. 

§  379.  Adjectives  of  deflection  derived  from  substan- 
tives may  originally  have  been — 

(I.  Substajitives  in  the  genitive  case  ;  as  needs. 

b.  Substantives  in  the  dative  case  ;  as  ichil-om,  an  an- 
tiquated word  meaning  at  times,  and  often  improperly 
?;pelt  whilome.  In  such  an  expression  as  icait  a  while, 
the  word  still  exists  ;  and  u'hile  =  time,  or  rather  patise  ; 
since,  in  Danish,  hvile  =  rest. 


2(8  .  •  ADVERBS. 

Else  (for  ell-es) ;  unawar-es  ;  eftsoon-s  are  adjectives 
in  the  genitive  case.  By  rights  is  a  word  of  the  same 
sort ;  the  -5  being  the  sign  of  tlie  genitive  singular  like 
the  -s  \n  father's,  and  not  of  the  accusative  plural  like  the 
•s  m  fathers. 

Once  {on-es) ;  twice  {twi-cs) ;  thrice  {thri-es)  are  7iu- 
ntcrals  in  the  genitive  case. 

§  380.  Darklijig. — This  is  no  participle  of  a  verb 
darkle,  but  an  adverb  of  derivation,  like  unicaringun  = 
immvares.  Old  High  German;  stillinge==  secretly.  Mid- 
dle High  German  ;  blindlings  =  blindly,  New  High  Ger- 
man ;  danuingo  =  secretly.  Old  Saxon  ;  riichtiiige  =  by 
night.  Middle  Dutch ;  blindeling  =  blindly,  New  Dutch  ; 
baclinga  —  backwards,  handlunga=hand  to  hand, 
Anglo-Saxon ;  and,  finallj'^,  blindlins,  backlins,  darklins, 
middlins,  scantlins,  stridelins,  stowlins,  in  Lowland 
Scotch. 


CERTAIN  ADVERBS   OF  PL. 


•ti,279 


CHAPTER  XXXIV. 

ON  CERTAIN  ADVERBS  OF  PLACE. 

§  381.  It  is  a  common  practice  for  languages  to  ex- 
press  by  different  modifications  of  the  same  root  the  three 
following  ideas  : — 

1.  The  idea  of  rest  in  a  place. 

2.  The  idea  of  motion  towards  a  place. 

3.  The  idea  of  motion /row  a  place. 

This  hahit  gives  us  three  correlative  adverbs — one  of 
position,  and  tAvo  of  direction. 

§  382.  It  is  also  a  common  practice  of  language  to  de- 
part from  the  original  expression  of  each  particular  idea, 
and  to  interchange  the  signs  by  -which  they  are  expressed  ; 
so  that  a  Avord  originally  expressive  of  simple  position  or 
rest  in  a  j)lttce  may  be  used  instead  of  the  word  expres- 
sive of  direction,  or  motion  between  two  places.  Hence 
we  say,  come  here,  when  come  hither  would  be  the  more 
correct  expression. 

§  383.  The  full  amount  of  change  in  this  repect  may 
be  seen  from  the  following  table,  illustrative  of  the  forma 
here,  hither,  hence. 

Mceso-Gothic j-iar,  j^a]?,  J^ajiro,  there,  thilhcr,  thence. 

Jier,  lii}»,  Litlro,  here,  hither,  hence. 

Old  Iliijh  German  .  .  .  huar,  biiara,  buanana,  ivherc,  whtt/ier,  viJience. 

diir,  dara,  danana,  there,  thither,  thence, 

hear,  hera,  hinana,  here,  hitJier,  hence. 


280         CERTAIN  ADVEKBS  OF  PLACE. 

Old  Saxon liu:ir,  liuar,  Lu:ui;in,  where,  whither,  witence, 

tliar,  tbar,  thauan,  there,  tldtlicr,  thence. 

lier,  hiir,  liiinaD,  here,  hither,  hence. 

Anglo-Saxon f'ar,  J^idcr,  Jionaii,  tliere,  thither,  thence. 

hvar,  hvider,  hvouan,  where,  whitltcr,  wlumce. 

liLT,  hjder,  biinan,  here,  hither,  hence. 

Old  Norse far,  JiaSra,  ]'a5aii,  there,  thither,  thence, 

hvar,  hvert,  livaSan,  where,  widt'tucr,  whence. 

her,  hoSra,  heSan,  here,  hither,  hence. 

Middle  Uujh  German  .  da,  dan,  dannen,  there,  thither,  thence, 

wa,  war,  waanen,  where,  whither,  wheiice. 

hie,  her,  hennen,  here,  hither,  lience. 

Modern  High  German  .  da,  dar,  danuen,  there,  thither,  thence. 

wo,  wohin,  wauneii,  tvhere,  whither,  whence. 

hier,  her,  hinnen,  here,  hither,  hence. 

§  384.  Local  terminations  of  this  kind,  in  general, 
Avore  commoner  in  the  earlier  stages  of  language 
than  at  present.  The  folloAving  are  from  the  Mocso 
Gothic : — 

lanajird  =fro)n  within. 

Utajro  =  from  tviihout. 

luj'ajiro  =  from  above. 

Fuirrajiru  =^from  afar. 

AUajiro  =m from  all  quarters. 

§  385.  The  -cc  (=  cs)  in  lien-ce,  when-cc,  tJten-ce,  has 
yet  to  be  satisfactorily  explained.  The  Old  English  is 
whenn-es,  ihenn-es.  As  far,  therefore,  as  the  spelling  is 
concerned,  they  are  in  the  same  predicament  Avith  the 
word  once^  •which  is  properly  on-es,  the  genitive  of  one. 
This  origin  is  probable,  but  not  certain. 

§  386.  Yonder. — In  the  Moeso-Gothic  we  have  the  fol- 
lowing forms  :  jaitiar,  jaiiia,  janyro  =  illic,  illuc,  ilUnc. 
They  do  not,  however,  quite  explain  the  form  yon-d-er. 
It  is  not  clear  whether  the  fZ  =  the  -d  hi  jaind,  or  the  ]>  in 


CERTAIN   ADVERBS   OF   PLACE.  281 

§  387.  Anon,  is  used  Ly  Shakspcare,  in  the  sense  of 
2)re.senllij. — The  probable  history  of  this  "word  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  first  syllable  contains  a  root  akin  to  the  root 
yon,  signifying  distance  in  place.  The  second  is  a 
shortened  form  of  the  Old  High  German  and  Middle 
High  German,  -7tl,  a  termination  expressive,  1,  of  re- 
moval in  space  ;  2,  of  removal  in  titne ;  Old  High  Ger- 
man, enont,  ennojit ;  Middle  High  German,  cnentlig, 
jcmint  =hcyond. 


282  WHEN,   THEN",   AXD  THAN. 


CHAPTER   XXXV. 


ON   WHEN,    THEN,    AND    THAN. 


§  388.  The  Anglo-Saxon  adverbs  are  whenne  and 
\emie  =  when,  then. 

The  masculine  accusative  cases  of  the  relative  and 
demonstrative  pronoun  are  hwcene  {Jnoone)  and  "^cejia 
iyone). 

Notwithstanding  the  difference,  the  first  form  is  a 
variety  of  the  second  ;  so  that  the  adverbs  wJien  and  then 
are  really  pronominal  in  origin. 

§  389.  As  to  the  word  than,  the  conjunction  of  com- 
parison, it  is  another  form  of  then  ;  the  notions  of  order, 
sequence,  and  comparison  being  allied. 

This  is  good  ;  then  (or  next  in  order)  that  is  good,  is 
an  expression  sufficiently  similar  to  this  is  better  than 
that  to  have  given  rise  to  it ;  and  in  Scotch  and  certain 
provincial  dialects  we  actually  find  th^n  instead  of  then. 


PKEPOSITIONS  AXD   CONJUNCTIONS.  28.H 


CHAPTER  XXXVI. 

PKEPOSITIONS     AND    CONJUNCTIONS, 

§  390.  Prcpos'Uions. — rrcpositions  arc  "wliolly  unsus- 
ceptible of  inflection. 

§  391.  Conjunctions. — Conjunctions,  like  prepositions, 
are  Avliolly  unsusceptible  of  inflection, 

§  392.  Yes^  no. — Although  not  may  be  considered  to 
be  an  adverb,  nor  a  conjunction,  and  none  a  noun,  these 
two  words,  the  direct  categorical  aflirmative,  and  the  direct 
categorical  negative,  are  referable  to  none  of  the  current 
parts  of  speech.  Accurate  grammar  places  them  in  a 
class  by  themselves. 

§  398.  Particles. — The  word  particle  is  a  collective 
term  for  all  those  parts  of  speech  that  are  naturally  un- 
susceptible of  inflection ;  comprising,  1,  interjections ; 
2,  direct  categorical  affirmatives ;  3,  direct  categorical 
negatives ;  4,  absolute  conjunctions ;  5,  absolute  preposi- 
tions ;  6,  adverbs  unsusceptible  of  degrees  of  comparison; 
7,  inseparable  prefixes. 


284:  THE   WORDS   MIXE   AND   THINE. 


•      CHAPTER  XXXVII. 

ON     THE     GRAMMATICAL     POSITION      OF     THE     AVORDS     MINE     AND 

THINE. 

§394.  The  inflection  of  pronouns  has  its  natural  pe- 
culiarities in  language.  It  has  also  its  natural  difficulties 
in  philology.  These  occur  not  in  one  language  in  particu- 
lar, but  in  all  generally. 

The  most  common  peculiarity  in  the  grammar  of  pro- 
nouns is  the  fact  of  what  may  be  called  their  convertibili- 
ty. Of  this  convertihiUty  the  folloAving  statements  serve 
as  illustration : — 

1.  Of  case. — In  our  own  language  the  words  tny  and 
tlty  although  at  present  possessives,  were  previously  da- 
tives, and,  earlier  still,  accusatives.  Again,  the  accusa- 
tive yoiL  replaces  the  nominative  ycj  and  vice  versa. 

2.  Of  luunher. — The  words  thou  and  thee  are,  except 
in  the  mouths  of  Quakers,  obsolete.  The  plural  forms, 
ye  and  you,  have  replaced  them. 

3.  Of  person. — The  Greek  language  gives  us  exam- 
ples of  this  in  the  promiscuous  use  of  viv,  /xiv,  acpe,  and 
eavTov ;  whilst  sich  and  sik  arc  used  with  a  similar  lati 
tude  in  the  Middle  High  German  and  Scandinavian. 

4.  Of  class. — The  demonstrative  pronouns   become — 

a.  Personal  pronouas. 

b.  Relative  pronouns. 

c.  Articles. 


THE   WOllDS   MINE   ANL    THINE.  285 

The  reflective  pronoun  often  becomes  reciprocal. 

§  395.  Tlicse  statements  are  made  for  the  sate  of 
illustrating,  not  of  exhausting,  the  subject.  It  follows, 
however,  as  an  inference  from  them,  that  the  classification 
of  pronouns  is  complicated.  Even  if  we  knew  the  origin- 
al power  and  derivation  of  every  form  of  every  pronoun 
in  a  language,  it  would  be  far  from  an  easy  matter  to  de- 
termine therefrom  the  paradigm  that  they  should  take  in 
grammar.  To  place  a  word  according  to  its  power  in  a 
late  stage  of  language  might  confuse  the  study  of  an 
early  stage.  To  say  that  because  a  word  was  once  in  a 
given  class,  it  should  always  be  so,  would  be  to  deny  that 
in  the  present  English  thcy^  these,  and  she  are  personal 
pronouns  at  all 

The  two  tests,  then,  of  the  grammatical  place  of  a  pro- 
noun, its  iwesent  'power  and  its  original  power,  are  often 
conflicting. 

§  396.  In  the  English  language  the  point  of  most  im- 
portance in  this  department  of  grammar  is  the  place  of 
forms  like  mine  and  tliine  ;  in  other  words,  of  the  foi'ms 
in  -n. 

Now,  if  we  take  up  the  common  grammars  of  the 
English  language  as  it  is,  we  find,  that,  whilst  mij  and  ih]/ 
are  dealt  with  as  genitive  cases,  97ii7ie  and  thi7ie  are  con- 
sidered adjectives.  In  the  Anglo-Saxon  grammars,  how- 
ever, inin  and  ]>in,  the  older  forms  of  mine  and  thine,  are 
treated  as  genitives  or  possessives. 

§  397.  This  gives  us  two  views  of  the  words  my  and 

a.  They  may  be  genitives  or  possessives,  which  were 
originally  datives  or  accusatives  ;  in  which  case  they  are 
deduced  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  mcc  and  pec. 

h.  They  may  be  the  Anglo-Saxon  min  and  ^in,  minus 
the  final -n. 


286  THE   WORDS   MINE   AND  THINE. 

Each  of  these  views  has  respcctahle  supporters.  The 
former  is  decidedly  preferred  by  the  present  -writer. 

§  398.  What,  however,  are  thine  and  mine  7  Are  they 
adjectives  like  mens,  tuns,  and  suns,  or  cases  like  mei, 
tui,  sni,  in  Latin,  and  hi-s  in  English  ? 

It  is  no  answer  to  say  that  sometimes  they  are  one 
and  sometimes  the  other.  They  were  not  so  originally. 
They  did  not  begin  with  meaning  two  things  at  once ; 
on  the  contrary,  they  were  either  possessive  cases,  of 
which  the  power  became  subsequently  adjectival,  or 
adjectives,  of  which  the  power  became  subsequently 
possessive. 

§  399.  In  Anglo-Saxon  and  in  Old  Saxon  there  is  but 
one  form  to  express  the  Latin  mei  (or  tui),  on  the  one  side, 
and  meus,  mea,  meum  (or  tuus,  &c.),  on  the  other.  In 
several  other  Gothic  tongues,  however,  there  was  the  fol- 
lowin";  difference  of  form  : 


Moeso-Golhic meina  =  mei  as  opposed  to  meius    =  meus. 

j^eina  =  tui ])ein3     =  luus. 

Old  Hii/h  German         .    .    min  =  mei miner    =  meus. 

din  =  tui diner    =  tim.i. 

Old  I^'^orse    .  .    .    min  =  mei minn     =  mcua. 

Jjia  =  tui Jiinn     =  tuu». 

Middle  Dutch mins  =»  mei min      =  meus. 

dins  =  tui din       =  tuus. 

Modern  High  German  .    .    mein  =  mei raeiner  =  meus. 

dein  =  tui deiner  =  tuus. 


In  these  differences  of  form  lie  the  best  reasons  for  the 
assumption  of  a  genitive  case,  as  the  origin  of  an  adjec- 
tival form ;  and,  undoubtedly,  in  those  languages  where 
both  forms  occur,  it  is  convenient  to  consider  one  as  a  case 
and  one  as  an  adjective. 

§  400.  But  this  is  not  the  present  question.     In  An- 


THE   AVORDS   MINE   AND   THINE.  287 

glo-Saxon  tlicre  is  but  one  form,  ?;2.2/i  and  '\^m='m<i  and 
7neiis,  tui  and  t7ins,  indifferently.  Is  this  form  an  oblique 
case  or  an  adjective  ? 

This  involves  two  sorts  of  evidence. 

§  401.  Etymological  evidence. — Assuming  two  pow- 
ers for  the  words  min  and  fm,  one  genitive,  and  one  ad- 
jectival, "which  is  the  original  one?  Or,  going  beyond 
the  Anglo-Saxon,  assuming  that  of  two  fortns  like 
meina  and  meiiis,  the  one  has  been  derived  from  the 
other,  which  is  the  primitive,  radical,  primary,  or  original 
one? 

Men,  from  Avhom  it  is  generally  unsafe  to  differ,  con- 
sider that  the  adjectival  form  is  the  derived  one ;  and, 
as  far  as  forms  like  miner,  as  opposed  to  min,  are 
concerned,  the  evidence  of  the  foregoing  list  is  in 
their  favour.  But  what  is  the  case  with  the  Middle 
Dutch?  The  genitive  mins  is  evidently  the  derivative  of 
min. 

The  reason  why  the  forms  like  miner  seem  derived 
is  becavise  they  are  longer  and  more  complex  than  tlie 
others.  Nevertheless,  it  is  by  no  means  an  absolute  rule 
in  philology  that  the  least  compound  form  is  the  oldest. 
A  Avord  may  be  adapted  to  a  secondary  meaning  by  a 
change  in  its  parts  in  the  Avay  of  omission,  as  well  as  by  a 
change  in  the  way  of  addition. 

§  402.  As  to  the  question  whether  it  is  most  likely  for 
an  adjective  to  be  derived  from  a  case,  or  a  case  from  an 
adjective,  it  may  be  said,  that  philology  furnishes  instances 
both  ways.  Ours  is  a  case  derived,  in  syntax  at  least, 
from  an  adjective.  Cujuin  (as  in  ciijuTU  j^gcus)  and  ses- 
iertinm,  are  Latin  instances  of  a  nominative  case  beins 
evolved  from  an  oblique  one. 

§  403.  Syntactic  evidence. — If  in  Anglo-Saxon  we 
found  such  expressions  as  dcel  vun  =  pars  met,  hcelf  ]>in 


288  TUE   AVOIiDS   MIXE  AND  THINE. 

=^di/nidiimi  ini,  ^\c  slioulJ  have  a  reason,  as  far  as  it 
"went,  for  believing  in  the  existence  of  a  true  genitive. 
Such  instances,  however,  have  yet  to  be  quoted. 

§  404.  Again — as  min  and  ]>iu  arc  declined  like  ad- 
jectives, even  as  mens  and  tuns  are  so  declined,  Ave  have 
means  of  ascertaining  their  nature  from  the  form  they 
take  in  ceytain  constructions ;  thus,  fnhira  =  vieorum, 
and  mi?iYC  =  mex,  are  the  genitive  plural  and  the  dative 
singular  respectively.  Thus,  too,  the  Anglo-Saxon  for 
of  thy  eyes  should  be  eagena  ]>inra,  and  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  for  to  my  U'idoio,  should  be  wiuhni-an  minre ; 
just  as  in  Latin,  they  would  be  ocular mn  tuorum,  and 
viduce  mece. 

If,  however,  instead  of  this  we  find  such  expressions  as 
eagena  fiVi,  or  wuduwan  min,  we  find  evidence  in  favour 
of  a  genitive  case  ;  for  then  the  construction  is  not  one  of 
concord,  but  one  of  government,  and  the  words  '\>in  and 
min  must  be  construed  as  the  Latin  forms  tui  and  tnei 
would  be  in  ocidorum,  m,ei,  and  viduce  mei ;  viz. :  as  gen- 
itive cases.  Now,  whether  a  sufficient  proportion  of  such 
constructions  exist  or  not,  they  have  not  yet  been  brought 
forward. 

Such  instances,  even  if  quoted,  would  not  be  con- 
clusive. 

§  405..  Why  -uould  they  not  be  conclusive ?  Because 
eve}i  of  the  adjective  there  are  nninflected  forms. 

As  early  as  the  Mocso-Gothic  stage  of  our  lan- 
guage, we  find  rudiments  of  this  omission  of  the  inflection. 
The  possessive  pronouns  in  the  neuter  singidar  some- 
times take  the  inflection,  sometimes  appear  as  ci'ude 
forms,  nhn  thata  hadi  theinata  =  apov  aov  rov  Kpd/3- 
/3aTov  (Mark  ii.  9),  opposed  to  ni7?i  thata  hadi  thein, 
two  verses  afterwards.  So  also  with  mein  and  meinata. 
It  is  remarkable  that   this  omission  should  begin  with 


THE   WORDS   J[1NE  AND   THINE.  289 

forms  so  marked  as  those  of  tlie  neuter  {-ata).  It  lias, 
perhaps,  its  origin  in  the  adverbial  character  of  that 
gender. 

Old  High  German. — Here  the  nominatives,  both 
masculine  and  feminine,  lose  the  inflection,  whilst  the 
neuter  retains  it — thin  dohter^  sin  qiiend.^  min  dohtcr, 
sinaz  lib.  In  a  few  cases,  when  the  pronoun  comes  after, 
even  the  oblique  cases  drop  the  inflection. 

Middle  High  German. — Preccdiyig  the  noun,  the  no- 
minative of  all  genders  is  destitute  of  inflection ;  sin  lib, 
min  ere,  din  lib,  6cc.  Folloioing  the  nouns,  the  oblique 
cases  do  the  same ;  ine  herse  sin.  The  influence  of  po- 
sition should  here  be  noticed.  Undoubtedly  a  place  after 
the  substantive  influences  the  omission  of  the  inflection. 
This  appears  in  its  maxi?num  in  the  Middle  High  Ger- 
man. In  Moeso-Gothic  we  have  mein  Icik  and  leik  inein- 
ata. 

§  406.  Now  by  assuming  the  extension  of  the  Middle 
High  German  omission  of  the  inflection  to  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  ;  and  by  supposing  it  to  affect  the  words  in  ques- 
tion in  all  positions  {i.  e.,  both  before  and  after  their 
nouns),  we  may  explain  the  constructions  in  question,  in 
case  they  occur.  But,  as  already  stated,  no  instances  of 
them  have  been  quoted. 

To  suppose  two  adjectival  forms,  one  inflected  {m,in, 
minre,  dec),  and  one  uninflected,  or  common  to  all  genders 
and  both  numbers  {min),  is  to  suppose  no  more  than  is  the 
case  with  the  uninflected  \e,  as  compared  with  the  in- 
flected \ait. 

§  407.  Hence,  the  evidence  required  in  order  to  make 
a  single  instance  of  min  or  \in,  the  necessary  equivalents 
to  Tnei  and  tui,  rather  than  to  mens  and  tuus,  must  con- 
sist in  the  quotation    from  the   Anglo-Saxon  of   some 

14 


290  TUE   WORDS   MIXE   AXD   THIXE. 

text,  ■wherein  min  or  ]>ui  occurs  -with  a  feminine  sub- 
stantive, in  an  ohlique  case,  tlie  pronoun  jti'cceding  the 
noun.  When  this  has  been  done,  it  will  be  time  enough 
to  treat  mine  and  thine  as  the  equivalents  to  mei  and  tui, 
rather  than  as  those  to  mens  and  tuns. 


CONSTITUTION   OF  "WEAK   PEvETEIlITE,  291 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII. 

ON    THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    WEAK    rR.ETERITE. 

§  408.  The  remote  orio;in  of  tlic  -weak  prretcrite  in  -d 
or  -t,  has  been  considered  by  Grimm.  He  maintains 
ttat  it  is  the  d  in  d-d,  the  reduplicate  prseterite  of  do. 
In  all  the  Gotliic  languages  the  termination  of  the  past 
tense  is  cither  -da,  -ta,  -de,  -ti,  -d,  -t,  or  -ed,  for  the 
singular,  and  -do7i,  -ton,  -tuqms,  or  -"^iim,  for  the  plural ; 
in  other  words,  (/,  or  an  allied  sound,  appears  once,  if 
not  oftener.  In  the  plural  prseterite  of  the  Maso-  Gothic, 
however,  we  have  something  more,  viz.,  the  termination 
-dediim ;  as  nas-idedum,  nas-idedu^,  nas-idedun,  from 
nas-ja  ;  sok-idedum,  sok-idkhiy,  sok-iddeun,  from  s6k-ja  ; 
salb-odediim,  salb-odedn]',  salh-odedun,  from  salho.  Here 
there  is  a  second  d.  The  same  takes  place  with  the  dual 
form  salh-odeduts,  and  with  the  subjunctive  forms,  salh- 
odtdja'n,  salh-odediits,  salh-odedi,  salh-odedeits,  salh- 
odedeima,  salb-ddedei\>,  salh-odedina.  The  English 
phrase,  we  did  salve,  as  compared  with  salh-odedum,  is 
confirmatory  of  this. 

§  409.  Some  remarks  of  Dr.  Trithcn's  on  the  Sla- 
vonic prajterite,  in  the  "  Transactions  of  the  Philological 
Society,"  induce  mc  to  prefer  a  different  doctrine,  and  to 
identify  the  -d  in  words  like  moved,  &c.,  with  the  -t  of  the 
passive  participles  of  the  Latin  language ;  as  found  in 
raon-zV-us,  voc-a^us,  rap-^us,  and  probably  in  Greek  forma 
like  TV(fi-6-eL<?. 


292  CONSTITUTION  OF  WEAK  TR^TERITE. 

1.  The  Slavonic  preterite  is  commonly  said  to  possess 
genders :  in  other  ■words,  there  is  one  form  for  speaking 
of  a  past  action  when  done  by  a  male,  and  another  for 
speaking  of  a  past  action  when  done  by  a  female. 

2.  These  forms  arc  identical  with  those  of  the  partici- 
ples, masculine  or  feminine,  as  the  case  may  be.  Indeed 
the  prreterite  is  a  participle.  If,  instead  of  saying  ille 
aniavit,  the  Latins  said  ille  amatus,  whilst,  instead  of 
saying  ilia  atnavit,  they  said  ilia  amata,  they  would  exactly 
use  the  grammar  of  the  Slavonians. 

3.  Hence,  as  one  class  of  languages,  at  least,  gives  us 
the  undoubted  fact  of  an  active  praiterite  being  identical 
with  a  passive  participle,  and  as  the  participle  and 
pr£eterite  in  question  are  nearly  identical,  we  have  a  fair 
reason  for  believing  that  the  d,  in  the  English  active 
praeterite,  is  the  d  of  the  participle,  which  in  its  turn,  is 
the  /  of  the  Latin  passive  participle. 

§  410.  The  following  extract  gives  Dr.  Trithen's  re- 
marks on  the  Slavonic  verb  in  his  own  words  : — 

"  A  peculiarity  ■wliich  distiuguishes  the  grammar  of  all  the  Slavish 
languages,  consists  in  the  use  of  the  past  participle,  taken  in  an  active 
sense,  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  the  prasterite.  Tliis  participle 
generally  ends  in  /;  and  much  uncertainty  prevails  both  as  to  its  origin 
and  its  relations,  though  tlie  termination  has  been  compared  by  various 
philologists  with  similar  affixes  in  the  Sanscrit,  and  the  classical  lan- 
guages. 

"  In  the  Old  Slavish,  or  the  language  of  the  church,  there  arc  three 
methods  of  expressing  the  past  tense :  one  of  them  consists  in  the  union  of 
the  verb  substantive  with  the  participle  ;  as, 

Rck  csm'        ....     chital  esmi' 
Rek  est'      ....         chital  esi' 
liek  est'  ....     chital  est'. 

"  In  the  corresponding  tense  of  the  Slavonic  dialect  Ave  have  the  verb 
substantive  placed  before  the  participle  : 


COXSTITUTION    OF    ^VEAK    TR^ETERITE, 


293 


Ya  sam  imao  .         .        .     nii'  smo  imali 
Ti  si  imao      .        .        .        vi'  ste  imali 

On  tje  imao  .         ■         •     omi  su  imali. 

'•  In  the  rolish  it  appears  as  a  suffix : 

Czytalem         .         .         .         czytalisiny 
Czytales  .    czytaliscie 

Czytal      .  ,        czytalie. 


"  And  iu  the  Servian  it  follows  the  participle : 


Iffrao  Bam 
Jgrao  si  . 
Jgrao  ye 


irjrali  smo 
igrali  ste 
iyrali  su. 


"  The  ending  -ao,  of  igrao  and  imao^  stands  for  the  Russian  a/,  as  «n 
("omp  Eu^lis!)  dialects  a'  is  used  for  allP 


PART   V. 


SYIS^TAX. 


CHAPTER    I. 


ON    SYNTAX    IN    GENERAL. 


§  411.  The  word  syntax  is  dcnvecl  from  the  Grcelc 
sijn  [tcith  or  together)  and  taxis  {arrangement).  It 
relates  to  tlie  arrangement,  or  putting  together,  of -words. 
Two  or  more  words  must  be  used  before  there  can  be  any 
application  of  syntax. 

There  is  to  me  a  fatJier. — Here  we  have  a  circumlo- 
cution equivalent  to  /  Jiave  a  father.  In  the  English 
language  the  circumlocution  is  unnatural.  In  the  Latin 
it  is  common.  To  determine  this,  is  a  matter  of  idiom 
rather  than  of  syntax. 

§  412.  In  the  English,  as  in  all  other  languages,  it  is 
convenient  to  notice  certain  so-called  figures  of  speech. 
They  always  furnish  convenient  modes  of  expression,  and 
sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  the  one  immediately  about  to 
be  noticed,  account  for  facts. 

§  413.  Personification. — The  ideas  of  apposition  and 
collectiveness  account  for  the  apparent  violations  of  the 
concord  of  number.  The  idea  of  personification  applies 
to   the   concord   of  gender.      A   masculine   or  feminine 


SYNTAX   IX   GENERAL.  295 

gender,  cliaractcristic  of  persons,  may  be  substituted  for 
the  neuter  gender,  characteristic  of  things.  In  this  case 
the  term  is  said  to  be  personified. 

The  cities  loJio  aspired  to  liherlij. — A  personification 
of  the  idea  expressed  by  cities  is  here  necessary  to  justify 
the  expression. 

//,  the  sign  of  the  neuter  gender,  as  applied  to  a  male 
or  female  cJiild,  is  the  reverse  of  the  process. 

§  414.  Ellipsis  (from  the  Greek  clleipein=to  fall 
short),  or  a  falling  short,  occurs  in  sentences  like  I  sent 
to  the  bookseller^ s.  Here  the  word  shop  or  house  is 
understood.  Expressions  like  to  go  on  all  fours,  and  to 
eat  of  the  fruit  of  the  tree,  are  reducible  to  ellipses. 

§  415.  Pleonasm  (from  the  Greek  plconazein  =  to  he 
in  excess)  occurs  in  sentences  like  the  Icing,  lie  reigns. 
Here  the  word  he  is  superabundant. 

My  hanks,  tlicy  are  furnished, — tlie  tnost  str attest 
sect, — these  are  pleonastic  expressions.  In  the  king,  he 
reigns,  the  word  king  is  in  the  same  predicament  as  in 
the  king,  God  hless  him. 

The  double  negative,  allowed  in  Greek  and  Anglo- 
Saxon,  but  not  admissible  in  English,  is  pleonastic. 

The  verb  do,  in  I  do  speak,  is  jiot  pleonastic.  In 
respect  to  the  sense  it  adds  intensity.  In  respect  to  the 
construction  it  is  not  in  apposition,  but  in  the  same  pre- 
dicament with  verbs  like  7nust  and  should,  as  in  I  must 
go,  (fcc. ;  i.  e.,  it  is  a  verb  followed  by  an  infinitive.  This 
we  know  from  its  power  in  those  languages  where  the  in- 
finitive has  a  characteristic  sign  ;  as,  in  German, 
Die  Augen  thalcn  ilim  \vinkeii. — Goethe. 

Besides  this,  make  is  similarly  used  in  Old  English, 
— But  men  inakc  draw  the  hranch  thereof  and  heren 
him  to  he  graffcd  at  Bahyloyne. — Sir  J.  Mandcvillc. 

§  416.   The  figure  zeugma. —  They  ivear  a  garment 


296  SYNTAX    IX   GENERAL. 

like  tJidt  of  tho.  Scythians,  hut  a  language  peculiar  to 
themselves. — The  vcrh,  naturally  applying  to  garment 
only,  is  here  used  to  govern  language.  Tins  is  called  in 
Greek,  zeugma  (junction). 

§  417.  My  patei'nal  home  was  made  desolate,  and  he 
hiinself  teas  sacrificed. — The  sense  of  this  is  plain ;  he 
means  my  father.  Yet  no  such  substantive  a,s  father  hua 
gone  before.  It  is  supplied,  however,  from  the  word 
paternal.  The  sense  indicated  b}'  paternal  gives  us  a 
subject  to  which  he  can  refer.  In  other  words,  the  word 
he  is  understood,  according  to  Avhat  is  indicated,  rather 
than  according  to  what  is  expressed.  This  figure  in  Greek 
is  called  jyros  to  semainomenon  {according  to  the  thing 
indicated). 

§  418. — Apposition, — Caesar,  the  Rom,an  emperor,  in- 
vades Britain. — Here  the  words  Roman  emperor  explain, 
or  define,  the  word  Caesar  ;  and  the  sentence,  filled  up, 
might  stand,  Casar,  that  is,  the  Roman  einperor,  &c. 
Again,  the  word  Roman  emperor  might  be  wholly 
ejected;  or,  if  not  ejected,  they  might  be  thrown  into  a 
parenthesis.  The  practical  bearing  of  this  fact  is  ex- 
hibited by  changing  the  form  of  the  sentence,  and  insert- 
ing the  conjunction  and.  In  this  case,  instead  of  one 
person,  two  are  spoken  of,  and  the  verb  invades  must  be 
clianged  from  the  singular  to  the  plural. 

Now  the  words  Roman  emperor  are  said  to  be  in 
apposition  to  Coisar.  They  constitute,  not  an  additional 
idea,  but  an  cxj)lanation  of  the  original  one.  They  are, 
as  it  were,  laid  alongside  {apjtositi)  of  the  w^ord  Ccesar. 
Cases  of  doubtful  nuudjer,  wherein  two  substantives  pre- 
cede a  verb,  and  wherein  it  is  uncertain  whether  the  verb 
should  be  singular  Or  plural,  are  decided  by  determining 
whether  the  substantives  be  in  apposition  or  the  contrary. 
No  matter  how  many  nouns  there  may  be,  as  long  as  it 


SYNTAX   IX   GENKKAL,  297 

can  be  slio^\"n  that  they  arc  iu    apposition,  the  verb  is 
in  the  sin;^ular  number. 

§  419.  Collcctiveness  as  opposed  to  plurality. — Iu 
sentences  like  the  meeting"  was  large,  the  tnuUitude  pur- 
sue jjlcasure,  meeting  and  mnltitude  arc  each  collective 
nouns ;  that  is,  although  they  present  the  idea  of  a 
single  object,  that  object  consists  of  a  plurality  of  indi- 
viduals. Hence,  pursue  is  put  in  the  plural  number. 
To  say,  however,  tJie  meeting  were  large  would  sound 
improper.  The  number  of  the  verb  that  shall  accom- 
pany a  collective  noun  depends  upon  whether  the  idea  of 
the  multiplicity  of  individuals,  or  that  of  the  unity  of  the 
aggregate,  shall  predominate. 

Sand  and  salt  and  a  mass  of  iron  is  easier  to  hear 
than  a  man  without  understanding. — Let  sand  and  salt 
and  amass  of  iron  be  dealt  with  as  a  series  of  things  the 
aggregate  of  which  forms  a  mixtui'e,  and  the  expression  is 
allowable. 

The  king  and  the  lords  and  commons  forms  an  ex- 
cellent frame  of  governjncnt. — Here  the  expression  is 
doubtful.  Substitute  ^cith  for  the  first  and,  and  there  is 
no  doubt  as  to  the  propriety  of  the  singular  form  is. 

§  420.  TJie  reduction  of  coin  pie  x  forms  to  simple  ofies. 
— Take,  for  instance,  the  current  illustration,  viz.,  the- 
king-of-Saxony^ s  army. — Here  the  assertion  is,  not  that 
the  army  belongs  to  /Saxony,  but  that  it  belongs  to  the 
hing  of  Saxony ;  which  words  must,  for  the  sake  of 
taking  a  true  view  of  the  construction,  be  dealt  with  as  a 
single  word  in  the  possessive  case.  Here  two  cases  are 
dealt  with  as  one  ;  and  a  complex  term  is  treated  as  a 
single  word. 

The    same   reai>on    applies    to   phrases    like    the   two 
king  Williams.     If  wo  say  the  two  kings  William,  wo 
must  account  for  the  phrase  by  apposition. 
14* 


,  298  SYNTAX  IN   GENEKAL. 

§  421.  True  noliun  of  the  part  nf  speech  in  use. — In 
he  is  ffonc,  the  word  ii^'-one  must  be  considered  us  equiva- 
lent to  absent ;  that  is,  as  an  adjective.  OtherAvisc  tho 
expression  is  as  incorrect  as  tho  expression  she  is  doped. 
Strong  participles  are  adjectival  oftener  than  Avcak  ones : 
their  form  being  common  to  many  adjectives. 

Triie  votion  of  the  original  form. — In  the  phrase  / 
7}iiist  speak,  the  -word  speak  in  an  infinitive.  In  the 
phrase  /  a?n  forced  to  .^pea/c,  the  word  speak  is  (in  the 
present  English)  an  infinitive  also.  In  one  case,  how- 
ever, it  is  preceded  by  to;  whilst  in  the  other,  the 
particle  to  is  absent.  The  reason  for  this  lies  in  the 
original  difference  of  form.  Speak — to  =  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  sprecan.  a  simple  infinitive  ;  to  speak,  or  speak  + 
to  =  the  Anglo-Saxon  to  sprecanne,  an  infinitive  in  the 
dative  case. 

§  422.  ConvertihiUly. — In  the  English  language,  the 
greater  part  of  the  words  may,  as  fur  as  their  form  is 
concerned,  be  one  part  of  speech  as  well  as  another. 
Thus  the  combinations  s-a-n-th,  or  f-r-e-n-k,  if  they 
existed  at  all,  might  exist  as  either  nouns  or  verbs,  as 
either  substantives  or  adjectives,  as  conjunctions,  ad- 
verbs, or  prepositions.  This  is  not  the  case  in  the 
Greek  languages.  There,  if  a  word  be  a  substantive,  it 
will  probably  end  in  -s  ;  if  an  infinitive  verb,  in  -ein,  &c. 
The  bearings  of  this  difference  between  languages  like 
the  English  and  languages  like  the  Greek  will  soon 
appear. 

At  present,  it  is  suflicient  to  say  that  a  word,  origi- 
nally one  part  of  speech  (e.  g.,  a  noun),  may  become 
another  (e.  g.,  a  verb).  This  may  be  called  the  convcrti 
bility  of  words. 

There  is  an  etymological  convertibility,  and  a  syn- 
tactic convertibility  ;    and  although,  in  some   cases,  the 


SYNTAX   IN   GENERAL.  299 

line  of  demarcation  is  not  easily  drawn  between  them,  tlic 
distinction  is  intelligible  and  convenient. 

§  423.  Etij7nological  convertibilihj. — The  words  then 
and  than,  now  adverbs  or  conjunctions,  were  once  cases : 
in  other  words,  they  have  been  converted  from  one  part  ol 
speech  to  another.  Or,  they  may  even  be  said  to  be  caseSj 
at  the  present  moment ;  although  only  in  an  historical 
point  of  view.  For  the  practice  of  language,  they  arc  not 
only  adverbs  or  conjunctions,  but  they  are  adverbs  or  con- 
junctions exclusively. 

§  424.  tSyntactlc  convcrllhUihj. — The  condjination  to 
err,  is  at  this  moment  an  infinitive  verb.  Neverthe- 
less it  can  be  used  as  the  equivalent  to  the  substantive 
error. 

To  err  is  Jiiunan  =  error  is  human.  Now  this  is  an 
instance  of  syntactic  conversion.  Of  the  two  meanings, 
there  is  no  doubt  as  to  which  is  the  primary  one ;  which 
primary  meaning  is  part  and  parcel  of  the  language  at 
this  moment. 

The  infinitive,  when  used  as  a  substantive,  can  be  used 
in  a  singular  form  only. 

To  err  ■■=  error  ;  but  we  have  no  such  form  as  to  errs 
—  errors.  Nor  is  it  wanted.  The  infinitive,  in  a  sub- 
stantival sense,  always  conveys  a  general  statement,  so 
that  even  w'hen  singular,  it  has  a  plural  power;  just  as 
man  is  mortal  •=  men  are  mortal. 

§  425.  The  adjective  used  as  a  substantive. — Of  these, 
Avc  have  examples  in  expressions  like  the  blacks  of  Africa 
— the  bitters  and  sweets  of  life — all  fours  ^o ere  2^ n't  to  tJie 
ground.  These  are  true  instances  of  conversion,  and  are 
proved  to  be  so  by  the  fact  of  their  taking  a  plural 
form. 

Let  the  blind  lead  the  blind  is  not  an  instance  of 
conversion.     The  word  blind  in  both   instances  remains 


300  SYxNTAX    IN'   GEXERAL. 

ail  adjective,  and  is  sliown  to  remain  so  by  its  being  unin- 
llectcd. 

§  426.  Uninjlected  parts  of  speech,  used  as  substan- 
tive.— When  King  Richard  III.  saj'^s,  none  of  your  ifs, 
he  uses  the  Avord  if  as  a  substantive  =  expressions  of 
doubt. 

So  in  the  expression  o}w  long"  7ioir,  the  M'ord  noio  = 
present  time. 

§  427.  The  convertibility  of  words  in  Englisli  is  very 
great ;  and  it  is  so  because  the  structure  of  the  hmguage 
favours  it.  As  few  words  have  any  peculiar  signs  expres- 
sive of  their  being  particular  parts  of  speech,  interchange 
is  easy,  and  conversion  follows  the  logical  association  of 
ideas  unimpeded. 

The  convertibility  of  words  is  in  the  inverse  ratio  to 
the  amount  of  tJieir  injlection. 


SYNTAX  OF  SUBSTANTIVES.  301 


CHAPTER  11. 


SYNTAX    OF    SUBSTANTIVES. 


§  428.  The  phenomena  of  convertibility  have  been 
already  explained. 

The  remaining  points  connected  Avlth  tlie  syntax  of 
substantives,  are  chiefly  points  of  ellipsis. 

l:]llipsis  nf  snbstanlivcs.—TliQ  historical  view  of 
phrases,  like  Rimdell  and  Bridgets,  St.  Paul's,  &c., 
shows  that  this  ellipsis  is  common  to  the  English  and  the 
other  Gothic  Hnguages.  Furthermore,  it  shows  that  it  is 
met  Avith  in  languages  not  of  the  Gothic  stock ;  and, 
finally,  that  the  class  of  words  to  which  it  api^lies,  is, 
there  or  thereabouts,  the  same  generally. 

§  429.  The  following  phrases  are  referable  to  a  difter- 
ent  class  of  relations — 

1.  Right  and  left — supply  hand.  This  is,  probably,  a 
real  ellipsis.  The  words  right  and  left,  have  not  yet  be- 
come true  substantives  ;  inasmuch  as  they  have  no  plural 
forms.  In  this  respect  they  stand  in  contrast  with  bitter 
and  siveef ;  inasmuch  as  we  can  say  he  has  tasted  both 
the  bitters  and  siceets  of  life.  Nevertheless,  the  expres- 
sion can  be  rehned  on. 

-  2.  All  fours.  To  go  on  all  fours.  No  ellipsis. 
I  he  y^aru  fo7irs  is  a  true  substantive,  as  proved  by  its 
ftxi^^e^c^  as  a  plural. 


802  SYNTAX  OF  ADJECTIVES. 


CHAPTER   III. 


SYNTAX    OF    ADJECTIVE?. 


§  4-30.  Plconasin. — Pleonasm  can  take  place  ^vith  ad- 
jectives only  in  the  expression  of  the  degrees  of  compari- 
son. Over  and  above  the  etymological  signs  of  the  com- 
pai-ative  and  superlative  degrees,  there  may  be  used  the 
superlative  words  more  and  most. 

And  tills  pleonasm  really  occurs — 

The  more  serener  spirit. 
The  most  strtiitest  sect. 

These  are  instances  of  pleonasm  in  the  strictest  sense 
of  the  term. 

§  431.  Collocation. — As  a  general  rule,  the  adjective 
precedes  the  substantive — a  good  vian,  not  a  ?Jia>i  good. 

When,  however,  the  adjective  is  qualified  by  cither  the 
expression  of  its  degree,  or  accompanied  by  another  adjec- 
tive, it  may  follow  tlo  substantive — 

A  man  just  and  good. 

A  ■vroman  wise  and  fair. 

A  hero  devoted  to  his  country. 

A  patriot  disinterested  to  a  great  degree. 

Single  simple  adjectives  thus  placed  after  their  sub- 
stantive, belong  to  the  poetry  of  England,  and  especially 
to  the  ballad  poetry — sighs  profound — the  leaves  green. 

§  432.  Government. — The  only  adjective  that  governs 
a  case,  is   the  word  like.     In   the  expression,  this  is  like 


SYNT.O:  OF  ADJECTIVES.  303 

Iiim,  etc.,  the  original  po"\Ycr  of  tlic  dative  remains.  This 
■\ve  infer — 

1.  From  the  fact  that  in  most  languages  which  have 
inflections  to  a  suflicicnt  extent,  the  Avord  meaning  like 
governs  a  dative  case. 

2.  That  if  ever  we  use  in  English  any  preposition  at 
all  to  express  similitude,  it  is  the  preposition  to — like  io 
mo,  like  to  death,  &c. 

Expressions  like  fall  of  incat,  good  for  John,  are  by 
no  means  instances  of  the  govcriimcnt  of  adjectives  ;  the 
really  governing  Avords  being  the  prepositions  io  and  for 
respectively. 

§  433.  The  positive  degree  preceded  by  the  adjective 
more,  is  equivalent  to  the  comparative  form — e.  g.,  more 
irise  =  wiser. 

The  reasons  for  employing  one  expression  in  prefer- 
ence to  the  other,  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  particu- 
lar word  used. 

AVhen  the  Avord  is  at  one  and  tlie  same  time  of  Anoilo- 

O 

Saxon  origin  and  monosyllabic,  there  is  no  doubt  about 
the  preference  to  be  given  to  the  form  in  -er.  Thus, 
iris-er  is  preferable  to  moi'c  tvise. 

AVhcn,  hoAvcver,  the  Avord  is  coinpound,  or  trisyllabic. 
the  combination  Avitli  the  Avord  more,  is  preferable. 

more  fruitful fruit  fuller. 

more  villainouft     ....     villanouscr. 

BetAveen  these  two  extremes  there  are  several  inter 
mediate  forms,  Avherein  the  use  of  one  rather  than  another 
will  depend  upon  the  taste  of  the  writer.  The  question, 
however,  is  a  question  of  euphony,  rather  than  of  auglit 
else.  It  is  also  illustrated  by  the  principle  of  not  multi- 
plying secondary  elements.  In  such  a  Avord  as  friiitf idl- 
er, there  are  two  additions  to  the  root.  The  same  is  the 
case  with  the  superlative, //■////-^//('//-cs'A 


30-i  SYNTAX   OF  ADJECTIVES. 

§  434.  In  the  Chapter  ou  the  Comparative  Degree  Is 
indicated  a  refinement  upon  the  current  notions  as  to  the 
power  of  the  comparative  degree,  and  reasons  are  given 
for  believing  that  the  fundamental  notion  expressed  by  the 
comparative  inflexion  is  tlie  idea  of  comparison  or  contrast 
between  two  objects. 

In  this  case,  it  is  better  in  speaking  of  only  two 
objects  to  use  the  comparative  degree  rather  than  the 
superlative — even  when  we  use  the  definite  article  the. 
Thus— 

This  is  the  better  of  tlie  two 
is  preferable  to 

This  is  the  best  of  the  two. 

This  principle  is  capable  of  an  application  more  exten- 
sive than  our  habits  of  speaking  and  writing  will  verify. 
Thus  to  go  to  other  parts  of  speech,  we  should  logically 
say— 

Whether  of  the  two, 

rather  than 

Whicli  of  the  two. 
Either  the  fiither  or  the  son, 
but  not 

Either  the  father,  the  sou,  or  the  daughter. 

This  statement  may  be  refined  on.  It  is  chiefly  made 
for  the  sake  of  giving  fresh  prominence  to  the  idea  of 
duality,  expressed  by  the  terminations  -er  and  -ter. 

§  435.  The  absence  of  inflection  simplifies  the  syntax 
of  adjectives.  Violations  of  concord  are  impossible.  We 
could  not  make  an  adjective  disagree  with  its  substantive 
if  we  wished. 


SYNTAX  OF  TRONOUNS.  305 


CHAPTER  IV. 


SYNTiX    OF    TROXOUNS. 


§  436.  Pleonasm  in  the  syntax  of  pronouns. — In  tlic 
following  sentences  the  words  in  italics^ arc  pleonastic  : 

1.  I'ho  ting  he  is  just. 

2.  I  saw  her,  the  queen. 

3.  The  men,  they  were  there. 

4.  The  Iving,  his  crown. 

Of  these  forms,  the  first  is  more  common  than  the 
second  and  third,  and  the  fourth  more  common  than  the 
first. 

§  437.  The  fourth  has  another  element  of  importance. 
It  has  given  rise  to  the  absurd  notion  that  the  genitive 
case  in  -s  {father- s)  is  a  contraction  from  his  {father  his). 

To  say  nothing  about  the  inapplicabilit}-  of  this  rule  to 
feminine  genders,  and  plural  numbers,  the  whole  history 
of  the  Indo-Germanic  lano;ua2;es  is  ao-ainst  it. 

1.  We  cannot  reduce  the  qneeii's  majesty  to  tJie  queen 
his  majesty. 

2.  We  cannot  reduce  the  children's  bread  to  the  child- 
ren his  bread.. 

3.  The  Anglo-Saxon  forms  arc  in  -es,  not  in  his. 

4.  The  word  his  itself  must  be  accounted  for;  and 
that  cannot  be  done  by  assuming  it  to  be  he  -|-  his. 

5.  The  -5  in  fathcr^s  is  the  -is  in  jjatris,  and  the  -as 
in  Trarepci 


306  SYNTAX   OF   PRONOUNS. 

§  438.  The  preceding  examples  illustrate  an  apparent 
paradox,  viz.,  the  fact  of  pleonasm  and  ellipsis  being 
closely  allied.  T/ic  king  he  is  just,  dealt  with  as  a  single 
sentence,  is  undoubtedly  i^lconastic.  But  it  is  not  neces- 
sary to  be  considered  as  a  mere  simple  sentence.  The 
Icing — may  represent  a  first  sentence  incomplete,  whilst 
he  is  just  represent?  a  second  sentence  in  full.  What  is 
pleonasm  in  a  sinr;^^  /sentence  is  ellipsis  in  a  double  one. 


TRUE  PEKSONAL  PROISrOUNS.  307 


CIIArTEll    V. 

THE    TRUE    PERSONAL    mONOUNS. 

§  439.  Personal  pronouns. — The  use  of  tlie  second 
person  plural  instead  of  the  second  singular  has  been 
noticed  already.  This  use  of  one  number  for  another  is 
current  throughout  the  Gothic  languages.  A  pronoun  so 
used  is  conveniently  called  the  pronomen  reverentice. 

§  440.  Dativiis  clhlcus.^-ln  the  phrase 

Rob  mo  the  exchequer, — Henry  IV., 

the  mc  is  expletive,  and  is  equivalent  to  for  me.  This  ex- 
pletive use  of  the  dative  is  conveniently  called  the  dativus 
ethicus. 

§  441.  The  reflected  jiersoncd  jirononn. — In  the  Eng- 
lish language  there  is  no  equivalent  to  the  Latin  se,  the 
German  sich,  and  the  Scandinavian  sik,  and  sig. 

It  follows  from  this  that  the  word  self  is  used  to  a 
greater  extent  than  would  otherwise  be  the  case. 

I  strike  tne  is  awkward,  but  not  ambiguous. 

Thou  strikest  thee  is  awkward,  but  not  ambiguous. 

He  strikes  hini  is  ambiguous  ;  inasmuch  as  him  may 
m.ean  either  the  person  ivho  strikes  or  some  one  else.  In 
order  to  be  clear  we  add  the  word  self  when  the  idea  is 
reflective.  He  strikes  himself  is,  at  once  idiomatic  and 
unequivocal. 

So  it  is  with  the  plural  persons. 

We  strike  us  is  awkward,  but  not  ambiguous. 


308  TRUE   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

Ye  strike  you  is  the  same. 

They  strike  them  is  ambiguous. 

This  shows  tlic  value  of  a  reflective  pronoun  for  the 
third  person. 

As  a  general  rule,  therefore,  "whenever  we  use  a  verb 
reflectively  we  use  the  word  self  in  combination  with  the 
personal  pronoUn. 

Yet  this  was  not  always  the  case.  The  use  of  the 
simple  personal  pronoun  was  current  in  Anglo-Saxon,  and 
that,  not  only  for  the  first  two  persons,  but  for  the  third  as 
well. 

The  exceptions  to  this  rule  arc  either  poetical  expres- 
sions, or  imperative  moods. 

He  sat  him  down  .at  a  pillar's  base. — Bi'ron. 
Sit  thee  down. 

§  442.  Rejlective  neuters. — In  the  phrase  I  strike  me, 
the  verb  strike  is  transitive ;  in  other  words,  the  word 
me  expresses  the  object  of  an  action,  and  the  meaning  is 
diff"erent  from  the  meaning  of  the  simple  expression  1 
strike. 

In  the  phrase  I  fear  me  (used  by  Lord  Campbell  in 
his  lives  of  the  Chancellors),  the  verb /ear  is  intransitive 
or  neuter ;  in  other  words,  the  word  me  (unless,  indeed, 
fear  mean  terrify),  expresses  no  object  of  any  action  at 
all ;  whilst  the  meaning  is  the  same  as  in  the  simple  ex- 
pression I  fear. 

Here  the  reflective  pronoun  appears  out  of  place,  i.  e., 
after  a  neuter  or  intransitive  verb. 

Sucli  a  use,  however,  is  but  the  fragment  of  an  exten- 
sive system  of  reflective  verbs  thus  formed,  developed  in 
diff'erent  degrees  in  the  difl'erent  Gothic  languages  ;  but 
i)i  all  more  than  in  the  En2;lish. 

§  443.  Equivocal  rejlectives. — The  proper  place  of  the 
reflective  is  after  the  verb. 


TRUE   TERSONAL   PRONOUNS.  309 

The  proper  place  of  the  governing  pronoun  is,  in  the 
indicative  and  subjunctive  moods,  before  the  verb. 

Hence  in  expressions  like  the  preceding  there  is  no 
doubt  as  to  the  power  of  the  pronoun. 

The  imperative  mood,  however,  sometimes  presents  a 
complication.  Here  the  governing  person  may  follow  the 
verb. 

Mount  ye  =  either  he  mounted,  or  mount  yourselves. 
In  phrases  like  this,  and  in  phrases 

Bunk  ye,  husk  ye,  my  bonny,  bonny  bride. 
Busk  ye,  busk  yc,  my  winsome  marrow, 

the  construction  is  ambiguous.  Ye  may  either  be  a  no- 
minative case  governing  the  verb  hnsk,  or  an  accusative 
case  governed  by  it. 

This  is  an  instance  of  what  may  be  called  the  equivocal 
reflective. 


310  "iHJC  SYNTAX  OF 


CHAPTER  VI. 

ON  THE  SYNTAX  OF  THE  DEMONSTRATIVE  PRONOUNS,  AND  THE 
PRONOUNS  OF  THE  THIRD  PERSON. 

§  444.  As  his  and  her  are  genitive  cases  (and  not 
adjectives),  there  is  no  need  of  explaining  such  combina- 
tions as  his  mother,  her  father,  inasmuch  as  no  concord  of 
gender  is  expected.  The  expressions  are  respectively 
equivalent  to 

mater  ejus,  not  mater  sua  ; 
pater  ejus,    —  pater  suus. 

§  445.  It  has  been  stated  that  its  is  a  secondary 
genitive,  and  it  may  be  added,  that  it  is  of  late 
origin  in  the  language.  The  Anglo-Saxon  form  vras 
his,  the  genitive  of  he  for  the  neuter  and  masculine 
equally.  Hence,  when,  in  the  old  writers,  we  meet  his, 
where  we  expect  its,  we  must  not  suppose  that  any  per- 
sonification takes  place,  but  simply  that  the  old  genitive 
common  to  the  two  genders  is  used  in  preference  to 
the  modern  one  limited  to  the  neuter,  and  irregularly 
formed. 

The  following  instances  are  the  latest  specimens  of  its 
use : 

"  The  apoplexy  is,  as  I  take  it,  a  kind  of  lethargy.  I  Lave  read  the 
cause  of  his  effects  in  Galen;  it  is  a  kind  of  deafness." — 2  Henry  IV 
12. 


THE  DE3[0]S'STRATIVE  PRONOUNS.  311 

"■  If  the  salt  have  lost  his  savour,  -wherewith  shall  it  be  seasoned  ?  It 
is  ueither  fit  for  the  land,  nor  yet  for  the  dunghill ;  but  men  cast  it  out." 
— Lnl-e  xiv.  35. 

"  Some  affirm  that  every  plant  has  Jus  particular  fly  or  caterpillar, 
wliich  it  breeds  and  feeds." — Walton's  Angler. 

"  This  rule  is  not  so  gCQcral,  but  that  it  admittetli  of  his  cxceptiona." 
— Caukw. 


812  ON   THE   "WOED  SELF. 


CHAPTER    VIL 

ON    THE    CONSTRUCTION    OF    THE    AVORD    SELF. 

§  446.  The  undoubted  constructions  of  the  word  self, 
in  tlie  present  state  of  the  cultivated  English,  are  three- 
fold. 

1.  Government.— 1\\  myself,  thyself  ourselves,  and 
yourselves,  the  construction  is  that  of  a  common  sub- 
stantive ■with  an  adjective  or  genitive  case.  Myself 
^my  individuality,  and  is  similarly  construed  —  men 
individiialitas  (or  persona),  or  viei  iiidividnalitas  (or 
persona). 

2.  Apposition. — In  himself  and  themselves,  when  ac- 
cusative, the  construction  is  that  of  a  substantive  in 
apposition  with  a  pronoun.  Himself  =  him,  the  in- 
dividual. 

3.  Cojnposition. — It  is  only,  however,  when  himself 
and  themselves,  are  in  the  accusative  case,  that  the  con- 
struction is  appositional.  When  they  are  used  as  no- 
minatives, it  must  be  explained  on  another  principle.  In 
phrases  like 

JIc  himself  -was  present. 
Thci/  themselves  were  present, 

there  is  neither  apposition  nor  government ;  him  and 
them,  being  neither  related  to  my  and  thy,  so  as  to  be 
governed,  nor  yet  to  he  and  they,  so  as  to  form  an  ap- 
position. In  order  to  come  under  one  of  these  con- 
ditions, the  phrases  should  be  either  he  his  self  {they 


ON  TnE   WOKD  SELF.  313 

tJieir  selves),  or  else  ho  he  self  {they  they  selves).  In  tliis 
difficulty,  the  only  logical  view  that  can  he  taken  of  the 
matter,  is  to  consider  the  ■words  himself  and  theinselves, 
not  as  two  words,  but  as  a  single  word  compounded;  and 
even  then,  the  compound  will  be  of  an  irregular  kind ; 
inasmuch  as  the  inflectional  clement  -?/^,  is  dealt  with  as 
part  and  parcel  of  the  root, 

§  447.  Herself — The  construction  here  is  ambiguous. 
It  is  one  of  the  preceding  constructions.  Which,  however 
it  is,  is  uncertain ;  since  her  may  be  either  a  so-called 
genitive,  like  my,  or  an  accusative  like  Jam. 

Itself— \s  also  ambiguous.  The  5  may  represent  the 
-5  in  its,  as  well  as  the  s-  in  self 

This  inconsistency  is  as  old  as  the  Anglo-Saxon  stage 
of  the  English  languase. 


15 


814  POSSESSIVE  PRONOUNS. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 


ON    TIIK    POSSESSIVE    PRONOUNS. 


§  448.  The  possessive  pronouns  fall  into  two  classes. 
The  first  contains  the  forms  like  my  and  thy^  (fcc. ;  the 
second,  those  like  iiihie  and  thine,  (fee. 

il/y,  thy,  his  (as  in  his  book),  her,  its  (as  in  its  hook), 
our,  your,  their,  are  conveniently  considered  as  the 
equivalents  to  the  Latin  forms  7nei,  tui,  ejus,  nostrum, 
vestrum,  eorum. 

Mine,  thine,  his  (as  in  the  hook  is  his),  hers,  ours, 
yours,  theirs  are  conveniently  considered  as  the  equi- 
valents to  the  Latin  forms  mens,  mea,  meum  ;  tuns,  tua, 
tuum  ;  suns,  sua,  suum  ;  noster,  nostra,  nostrum  ;  vester, 
vestra,  vestrum. 

§  449.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  construction 
of  my  and  7nine.  We  cannot  say  this  is  mine  hat,  and 
we  cannot  say  this  hat  is  my.  Nevertheless,  this  differ- 
ence is  not  explained  by  any  change  of  construction 
from  that  of  adjectives  to  that  of  cases.  As  far  as  the 
syntax  is  concerned  the  construction  of  my  and  mine  is 
equally  that  of  an  adjective  agreeing  with  a  substantive, 
and  of  a  genitive  (or  possessive)  case  governed  by  a  sub- 
stantive. 

Now  a  common  genitive  case  can  be  used  in  two  ways  ; 
either  as  part  of  a  term,  or  as  a  whole  term  (i.  e.,  absolutely). 
— 1.  As  part  of  a  term — this  is  Johti's  hat.  2.  As  a 
whole  term — this  hat  is  John^s. 


POSSESSIVE   PEONOUNS.  315 

And  a  common  adjective  can  be  used  in  two  ways ; 
either  as  part  of  a  term,  or  as  a  whole  term  (/.  e.  abso- 
lutely). — 1.  As  part  of  a  term — these  are  good  hats. 
2.  As  a  wliole  term — these  hats  are  good. 

Now  wlictlier  we  consider  my,  and  the  words  like  it, 
as  adjectives  or  cases,  they  possess  only  one  of  the  pro- 
perties just  illustrated,  i.  c,  they  can  only  be  used  as  part 
of  a  term — this  is  my  hat ;  not  this  hat  is  my. 

And  whether  Ave  consider  m,inc,  and  the  words  like  it, 
as  adjectives  or  cases,  they  possess  only  one  of  the  pro- 
perties just  illustrated,  i.  e.,  they  can  only  be  used  as 
Avhole  terms,  or  absolutely — this  hat  is  mine  ;  not  this  is 
mine  hat. 

For  a  full  and  perfect  construction  whether  of  an  ad- 
jective or  a  genitive  case,  the  possessive  pronouns  present 
the  phenomenon  of  being,  singly,  incomplete,  but,  never- 
theless, complementary  to  each  other  when  taken  in  their 
two  forms. 

§  450.  In  the  absolute  construction  of  a  genitive  case, 
the  term  is  formed  by  the  single  word,  only  so  far  as  the 
expression  is  concerned.  A  substantive  is  always  under- 
stood from  what  has  preceded. —  This  discovery  is  New- 
ton\s  =  tJiis  discovery  is  Newton^s  discovery. 

The  same  with  adjectives. —  This  iveather  is  fine  =  this 
li'cather  is  fine  weather. 

And  the  same  with  absolute  pronouns. —  This  hat  is 
mine  =  this  hat  is  my  hat  ;  and  this  is  a  hat  of  mine  = 
this  is  a  hat  of  mj/  hats. 

§  451.  In  respect  to  all  matters  of  syntax  considered 
exclusively,  it  is  so  thoroughly  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  a  word  be  an  adjective  or  a  genitive  case  that 
Wallis  considers  the  forms  in  -'5,  like  father''s,  not  as 
genitive  cases  but  as  adjectives.  Looking  to  the  logic 
of  the   question   alone  he  is  right,  and  looking   to   the 


316  POSSESSIVE   riiONOUNS. 

practical  syntax  of  the  question  he  is  right  also.     He  is 
only  wrong  on  the  etymological  side  of  the  question. 

•'  Nomina  substantiva  apud  nos  nullum  vol  generum  vel  casuum  dis- 
crimen  sortiuntur." — p.  76. 

"  Duo  sunt  adjcctivorum  genera,  a  substantivis  immediate  desccndentia, 
qua3  semper  substantivis  suis  prajpouuntur.  Primum  quidem  adjcctlvum 
posscssivum  libet  appellare.  Fit  autera  a  quovis  substantivo,  sive  singulari 
sive  plurali,  addito  -s. — Ut  man's  nature,  the  nature  of  man,  natura 
liumana  vel  hominis ;  men's  nature,  natura  Immana  vel  hominum  ;  VirgiPa 
poems,  the  poems  of  Virgil,  poemata  Virgilii  vel  Virgiliana." — p.  89. 


RELATIVE   PEONOUNS.  317 


CHAPTER    IX. 


THE    RELATIVE    PROXOUNS. 


§  452.  It  is  necessary  that  the  relative  be  in  the  same 
gender  as  the  antecedent — the  man  who — the  womamvho 
— the  thing  which. 

§.  453.  It  is  necessary  that  the  rchitive  he  in  the  same 
number  with  the  antecedent. 

§  454.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  relative  to  be  in  the 
same  case  Tvith  its  antecedent. 

1.  John,  who  trusts  me,  comes  here. 

2.  John,  whom  I  trust,  comes  here. 

3.  John,  whose  confidence  I  possess,  comes  here. 

4.  I  trust  John  who  trusts  me. 

§  455.  The  reason  why  the  relative  must  agree  \n\h 
its  antecedent  in  both  number  and  gender,  whilst  it  need 
not  agree  with  it  in  case,  is  found  in  the  following  observa- 
tions. 

1.  All  sentences  containing  a  relative  contain  two 
•\crbs — John  who  (1)  trusts  me  (2)  cojnes  here. 

2.  Two  verbs  express  two  actions — (1)  trust  (2)  come. 

3.  Whilst,  however,  the  actions  are  two  in  number, 
the  person  or  thing  Avhich  does  or  suffers  them  is  single 
— Johyi. 

3.  He  {she  or  it)  is  single  ex  vi  terinini.  The  relative 
expresses  the  identity  between  the  subjects  (or  objects) 


313  i:i:i-AT[VK  rjioxoiN;^. 

of  tlie  two  actions.  Thus  v:ho^  JoJin,  or  is  another  name 
for  John. 

5.  Things  and  persons  that  arc  one  and  the  same,  arc 
of  one  and  tlic  same  gender.  The  John  \i\\o  trusts  is 
necessarily  of  the  same  gender  with  the  Johii  who  comes. 

G.  Things  and  persons  that  arc  one  and  the  same,  are 
of  one  and  the  same  number.  The  number  of  Jolins  who 
trvst,  is  the  same  as  the  number  of  Johiis  who  come. 
Both  these  elements  of  concord  are  immutable. 

7.  But  a  third  element  of  concord  is  not  immutable. 
The  person  or  thing  that  is  an  agent  in  the  one  part  of  the 
sentence,  may  be  the  object  of  an  action  in  the  other.  The 
John  whom  I  trust  may  trust  me  also.     Hence 

a.  I  trust  John — John  the  object. 

b.  John  trusts  me — John  the  agent. 

§  456.  As  the  relative  is  only  the  antecedent  in 
another  form,  it  may  change  its  case  according  to  the 
construction. 

1.  I  trust  John — (2)  John  trusts  mc. 

2.  I  trust  John — (2)  He  trusts  me. 

3.  I  trust  John — (2)  Who  trusts  me. 

4.  John  trusts  me — (2)  I  trust  John. 

5.  John  trusts  me — (2)  I  trust  him. 
C.  John  trusts  me — (2)  I  trust  whom. 

7.  John  trusts  me — (2)  Whom  I  trust. 

8.  John — (2)  Whom  I  trust  trusts  me. 

§  457.  The  hooks  I  wcmt  arc  here. — This  is  a  speci- 
men of  a  true  ellipsis.  In  all  such  phrases  in  full,  there 
are  three  essential  elements. 

1.  The  first  proposition  ;  as  the  books  are  here. 

2.  The  second  proposition  ;  as  /  ivant. 

3.  The  word  which  connects  the  two  propositions,  and 
without  which,  they  naturally  make  separate,  independent, 
unconnected  statements. 


RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.  319 

Now,  although  true  and  unequivocal  ellipses  arc 
scarce,  the  preceding  is  one  of  the  most  unequivocal 
kind — the  word  which  connects  the  two  propositions  being 
wanting. 

§  458.  W/toi  there  are  Uvo  ivords  in  a  clause,  each 
capable  of  being  an  antecedent,  the  relative  refers  to  the 
latter. 

1.  Solomon  the  son  of  David  that  slew  Goliah. — 
This  is  unexceptionable. 

2.  Solomon  the  son  of  David  icho  built  the  temple. — 
This  is  exceptionable. 

Nevertheless,  it  is  defensible,  on  the  supposition  that 
Solomon-the-son-of-David  is  a  single  many- worded  name. 


320  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN 


CHAPTER  X. 


ON  THE  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUN. 

§  459.  Questions  are  of  Uyo  sorts,  direct  and  olallque, 

Direct.— Who  is  he  ? 

Oblique. — "Who  do  you  say  that  he  is  ? 

All  difficulties  about  the  cases  of  the  interrogative  pro- 
noun may  be  determined  by  framing  an  answer,  and  ob- 
serving the  case  of  the  word  with  which  the  interrogative 
coincides.  Whatever  be  the  case  of  this  word  will  also  be 
the  case  of  the  interrooiative. 


Qu.   Who  is  this  ? — A71S,  I. 

Qu.    Whose  is  this  ? — Aiis.  His. 

Qu.   Whom  do  you  seek  ? — A71S.  Him. 

OBLIQUE. 

Qu.   Who  do  you  say  that  it  is  ? — Ans.  He. 

Qu.   Whose  do  you  say  that  it  is  ? — Ans.  His. 

Qu.   Who7n  do  you  say  that  they  seek  ? — Ans.  Him. 

Note. — The  answer  should  always  be  made  by  means 
of  a  pronoun,  as  by  so  doing  we  distinguish  the  accusative 
case  from  the  nominative. 

Note. — And,  if  necessary,  it  should  be  made  in  full. 
Thus  the  full  answer  to  who?n  do  you  say  that  they  seekl 
is,  I  say  that  they  seek  him. 

§  4G0.  Nevertheless,  such   expressions   as  whom  do 


INTERROGATIVE   PRONOUN.  321 

they  say  that  it  is  7  are  common,  especially  in  oblique 
questions. 

"  And  he  axed  him  and  seidc,  whom  seien  the  people  that  I  am  ? — lliei 
ausTvereden  and  seiden,  Jon  Baptist — and  he  scide  to  hem,  But  whom 
ecieu  yc  that  I  am  ?" — Wiclif,  Liike  ix. 

"  Tell  me  in  sadness  ichom  she  is  you  love." 

Romeo  and  Juliet,  L  1. 

"  And  as  John  fulfilled  his  course,  he  said,  whom  think  yc  that  I  am  ?" 
— Acts  xiiL  25. 

This  confusion,  lioAvever,  is  exceptionable. 


322  J-yl'RECIPROCAL   CONSTKUCTION. 


CHAPTER   XI. 

THE    RECIPROCAL    CONSTRUCTION. 

§  461.  In  all  sentences  containing  the  statement  of  a 
reciprocal  or  mutual  action  there  are  in  reality  two 
assertions,  viz.,  the  assertion  that  A.  strikes  (or  loves) 
B.,  and  the  assertion  that  B.  strikes  (or  loves)  A. ;  the 
action  forming  one,  the  reaction  another.  Hence,  if 
the  expressions  exactly  coincided  with  the  fact  signified, 
there  would  always  be  two  propositions.  This,  however, 
is  not  the  habit  of  language.  Hence  arises  a  more 
compendious  form  of  expression,  giving  origin  to  an 
ellipsis  of  a  peculiar  kind.  Phrases  like  Eteocles  and 
Polynices  killed  each  other  are  elliptical,  for  Eteocles  and 
Poli/nices  killed — each  the  other.  Here  the  second  pro- 
position expands  and  explains  the  first,  whilst  the  first 
supplies  the  verb  to  the  second.  Each,  however,  is 
elliptic. 

§  462.  This  is  the  syntax.  As  to  the  power  of  the 
words  each  and  one  in  the  expression  {each  other  and 
one  another),  I  am  not  prepared  to  say  that  in  the  com- 
mon practice  of  the  English  language  there  is  any  dis- 
tinction between  them.  A  distinction,  however,  if  it 
existed,  would  give  strength  to  our  language.  Where 
two  persons  performed  a  reciprocal  action  on  nnother, 
the  expression  might  be  ojie  another;  as  Eteocles  and 
Polynices  killed  one  another.  Where  more  than  two 
persons  were  engaged  on  each  side  of  a  reciprocal  action. 


RECIPEOCAL  CONSTRUCTIO^^{j££[0!^2£ 

the  expression  might  be  cacJt  other  ;  as,  i/tc  ten  champions 
praised  each  other. 

This  amount  of  perspicuity  is  attained,  by  different 
processes,  in  the  French,  Spanish,  and  Scandinavian 
languages. 

1.  French. — lis  {i.  e.,  A.  and  B.)  se  battaietit — Vun 
rautre.  lis  (A.  B.  C.)  se  hattaient — les  iins  Ics  autres. 
In  Spanish,  w«o  otro  =  Vun  V autre,  and  unos  otros  =  les 
uns  les  autres. 

2.  Danish. — flinander  =  the  French  Vun  V autre; 
whilst  hverandre  ==  les  tens  les  autres. 


324  INDETERMINATE   PRONOUNS. 


CIIAPTErv   XII. 


THE    IXDETERMINATE    PRONOUNS. 


§  4G3.  Different  nations  liavc  different  methods  of 
expressing  indeterminate  propositions. 

Sometimes  it  is  by  the  use  of  the  passive  voice.  This 
is  the  common  method  in  Latin  and  Greek,  and  is  also 
current  in  English — dicitw',  Xijerai,  it  is  said. 

Sometimes  the  verb  is  reflective — si  dice  =  it  says 
itself,  Italian. 

Sometimes  the  plural  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is 
used.  This  also  is  an  English  locution — they  say  =  the 
iDorld  at  large  says. 

Finally,  the  use  of  some  word  =  man  is  a  common 
indeterminate  expression. 

The  word  man  has  an  indeterminate  sense  in  the 
Modem  German ;  as  man,  sagt  =  they  say. 

The  "word  man  was  also  used  indeterminately  in  the 
Old  English,  although  it  is  not  so  used  in  the  INIodern. 

In  the  Old  English,  the  form  man  often  lost  the  -n, 
and  became  tne. — "  Deutsche  Grammatik."  This  form  is 
also  extinct. 

§  464.  The  present  indeterminate  pronoun  is  one  ;  as 
o?ie  says  ==  they  say  =  it  is  said  =  man  sagt,  German  = 
lu  dit,  French  =  si  dice,  Italian. 

It  has  been  stated,  that  the  indeterminate  pronoun 
one  has  no  etymological  connection  with  the  numeral 
o?ie  ;  but  that  it  is  derived  from  the  French  07i=  hom?ne 


INDETERMINATE   TROISrOUNS.  325 

=^  homo  =  man  ;  and  that  it  has  replaced  the  Old  English 
juaii  or  me. 

§  4G5.  Tavo  other  pronouns,  or,  to  speak  more  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  present  habit  of  the  English  language, 
one  pronoun,  and  one  adverb  of  pronominal  origin,  arc  also 
used  indeterminately,  viz.,  it  and  there. 

§  4G6.  It  can  be  either  the  subject  or  the  predicate 
of  a  sentence, — it  is  this,  this  is  it,  I  am  it,  it  is  I.  When 
it  is  the  subject  of  a  proposition,  the  verb  necessarily 
agrees  •svith  it,  and  can  be  of  the  singular  number  only ; 
no  matter  ■vN'hat  be  the  number  of  the  predicate — it  is  this, 
it  is  these. 

When  it  is  the  predicate  of  a  proposition,  the  number 
of  the  verb  depends  upon  the  number  of  the  subject. 
These  points  of  universal  syntax  are  mentioned  here  for 
the  sake  of  illustrating  some  anomalous  forms. 

§  4GT.  There  can  only  be  the  predicate  of  a  subject. 
It  differs  from  it  in  this  respect.  It  follows  also  that  it 
must  differ  from  it  in  never  affecting  the  number  of  the 
verb.  This  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  subject — 
there  is  this,  there  are  these. 

When  we  say  there  is  these,  the  analogy  between 
the  words  these  and  it  misleads  us ;  the  expression  being 
illogical. 

Furthermore,  although  a  predicate,  there  always  stands 
in  the  beginning  of  propositions,  i.  e.,  in  the  place  of  the 
subject.     This  also  misleads. 

§  468.  Although  t^,  when  the  subject,  being  itself  singu- 
lar, absolutely  requires  that  its  verb  should  be  singular 
also,  there  is  a  tendency  to  use  it  incorrectly,  and  to  treat 
it  as  a  plural.  Thus,  in  German,  Avhen  the  predicate  is 
plural,  the  verb  joined  to  the  singular  form  es  {  =  it)  is 
plural — es  sind  menschen,  literally  translated  =  r7  are 
men  ;  which,  though  bad  English,  is  good  German. 


32  (S  THE  ARTICLES. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 

THE    ARTICLES. 

5  469.  The  rule  of  most  practical  importance  about 
the  articles  is  the  rule  that  determines  ■vvhcn  the  article 
shall  be  repeated  as  often  as  there  is  a  fresh  substantive, 
and  ^yhen  it  shall  not. 

When  two  or  more  substantives  following  each  other 
denote  the  same  object,  the  article  precedes  the  first  only. 
We  say,  the  secretary  and  treasurer  (or,  a  secretary  and 
treasurer),  when  the  two  offices  are  held  by  one  person. 

When  two  or  more  substantives  following  each  other 
denote  different  objects,  the  article  is  repeated,  and  pre- 
cedes each.  We  say,  the  (or  a)  secretary  and  the  (or  a) 
treasurer,  when  the  two  offices  are  held  by  different  per- 
sons. 

This  rule  is  much  neglected. 


THE  NUMERALS.  827 


CHAPTER    XIV. 


THE   NUMERALS. 


§  470.  The  numeral  one  is  naturally  single.  All  the 
rest  arc  naturally  plural. 

Nevertheless  such  expressions — otie  two  ( =  one  collec- 
tion of  two),  two  threes  {  =  t'ico  collections  of  three)  are  le- 
gitimate. These  are  so,  because  the  sense  of  the  word  is 
changed.  We  may  talk  of  several  ones  just  as  vre  may 
talk  of  several  aces  ;  and  of  one  two  just  as  of  one  -pair. 

Expressions  like  the  thousandth-and-first  are  incorrect. 
They  mean  neither  one  thing  nor  another :  1001st  being 
expressed  by  the  thoiisand-andfirst,  and  1000th  +  1st 
being  expressed  by  the  thousandth  and  the  first. 

Here  it  may  be  noticed  that,  although  I  never  found 
it  to  do  so,  the  word  odd  is  capable  of  taking  an  ordinal 
form.  The  thousand-and-odd-th  is  as  good  an  expression 
as  the  thonsaiid-and-eiglit-th. 

The  construction  of  phrases  like  the  thousand-and  first 
is  the  same  construction  as  we  find  in  the  king  of  Saxojii/s 
army. 

h  4T1.  It  is  by  no  means  a  matter  of  indifference 
whether  we  say  the  tico  first  or  the  fii'st  two. 

The  captains  of  two  different  classes  at  school  should 
be  called  the  two  first  hoys.  The  first  and  second  boys 
of  the  same  class  should  be  called  the^r^^  two  hoys.  I 
believe  that  when  this  rule  is  attended  to,  more  is  due  to 
the  printer  than  to  the  author  :  such,  at  least,  is  the  case 
with  mvself 


828  VERBS  IN   GENERAL. 


CHAPTER    XV. 

ON    VERBS    IN    GENERAL. 

§  472.  For  tlie  purposes  of  syntax  it  is  necessary  to 
divide  verbs  into  the  five  following  divisions  :  transitive, 
intransitive,  auxiliary,  substantive,  and  impersonal. 

Transitive  verbs. — In  transitive  verbs  the  action  is 
never  a  simple  action.  It  always  afiects  some  object  or 
other, — /  move  my  limbs  ;  I  strike  my  enemy.  The  pre- 
sence of  a  transitive  verb  implies  also  the  presence  of  a 
noun;  "which  noun  is  the  name  of  the  object  affected. 
A  transitive  verb,  unaccompanied  by  a  noun,  either  ex- 
pressed or  understood,  is  a  contradiction  in  terms.  The 
absence  of  the  nouns,  in  and  of  itself,  makes  it  intran- 
sitive. I  move  means,  simply,  I  am  in  a  state  of  moving. 
I  strike  means,  simply,  /  am  in  ilte  act  of  striking. 
Verbs  like  onove  and  strike  are  naturally  transitive. 

Intransitive  verbs. — An  act  may  take  place,  and  yet 
no  object  be  affected  by  it.  To  hunger^  to  thirst,  to  sleep, 
to  wake,  are  verbs  that  indicate  states  of  being,  rather 
than  actions  affecting  objects.  Verbs  like  Imnger  and 
sleep  are  naturally  intransitive. 

Many  verbs,  naturally  transitive,  may  be  used  as  in- 
transitive,— e.  g.,  I  move,  I  strike,  &c. 

INIany  verbs,  naturally  intransitive,  may  be  used  as 
transitives, — e.  g.,  I  icalked  the  Jiorse  =  I  made  the  horse 
walk. 

This  variation  in  the  use  of  one  and  the  same  verb 


VEEBS   IN   GENEliAL.  829 

is  of  niucli  importance  in  the  (question  of  the  government 
of  verbs. 

A.  Transitive  verbs  arc  naturally  follo"\vccl  by  some 
noun  or  other  ;  and  that  noun  is  always  the  name  of  some- 
thing affected  by  thcni  as  an  object. 

B.  Intransitive  verbs  arc  not  naturally  follo^Yed  by 
any  noun  at  all ;  and  -when  they  arc  so  followed,  the  noun 
is  never  the  name  of  anything  affected  by  them  as  an 
object. 

Nevertheless,  intransitive  verbs  may  be  followed  by 
nouns  denoting  the  manner,  degree,  or  instrumentality  of 
their  action, — I loalk  with  7?ii/feet  =  incedopcdibus. 

§  473.  The  auxiliary  verbs  will  be  noticed'  fully  in 
Chapter  XXIII. 

§  474.  The  verb  substantive  has  this  peculiarity,  viz., 
that  for  all  purposes  of  syntax  it  is  no  verb  at  all.  /  speak 
may,  logically,  be  reduced  to  /  am  speaking ;  in  which 
case  it  is  only  the  j)ort  of  a  verb.  Etymologically,  indeed, 
the  verb  substantive  is  a  verb  ;  inasmuch  as  it  is  inflected 
as  such :  but  for  the  purposes  of  construction,  it  is  a 
copula  only,  i.  c,  it  merely  denotes  the  agreement  or  dis- 
agreement between  the  subject  and  the  predicate. 

For  the  irnpcrsonal  verbs  see  Chapter  XXI. 


330  CONCOKD   OF  VERBS. 


CHAPTER    XVI. 


TIIE    CONCORD    OF    VERBS. 


§  475.  The  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  per- 
son, /  walk,  not  /  walks  :  he  ivalks,  not  he  walk. 

It  must  also  agree  with  it  in  number, — we  walk,  not 
we  walks :  he  walks,  not  he  walk. 

Clear  as  these  rules  are,  they  require  some  expansion 
before  they  become  sufficient  to  solve  all  the  doubtful 
points  of  English  syntax  connected  with  the  concord  of  the 
verb. 

A.  It  is  I,  your  master,  who  command  you.  Query  ? 
would  it  is  I,  your  master,  icho  comtnands  you,  be  cor- 
rect ?  This  is  an  example  of  a  disputed  point  of  concord 
in  respect  to  the  person  of  the  verb. 

B.  The  ivag-es  of  si?i  is  death.  Query  ?  would  the 
ivages  of  sill  a,YG  death  ho  correct?  This  is  an  example 
of  a  disputed  point  of  concord  in  respect  to  the  number  of 
the  verb. 

§  47G.  In  respect  to  the  concord  of  person  the  follow- 
ing rules  will  carry  us  through  a  portion  of  the  difficulties. 

JRule. — In  sentences  where  there  is  but  one  propo- 
sition, when  a  noun  and  a  pronoun  of  different  persons  are 
in  apposition,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first  of  them, — I, 
your  master,  coinmand  you  (not  commands) :  your  mas- 
ter, I,  commaJids  you  (not  command). 

To  understand  the  nature  of  the  difficulty,  it  is  neces- 


CONCORD   OF   YEKBS.  331 

sary  to  remember  that  subjects  may  be  extremely  com 
plex  as  well  as  perfectly  simple ;  and  that  a  complex  sub 
ject  may  contain,  at  one  and  the  same  time,  a  noun  sub- 
stantive and  a  pronoun. — I,  the  keeper  ;  he,  the  merchaiit, 
&c. 

Now  all  noun-substantives  arc  naturally  of  the  tliird 
person — John  speaks,  tlie  men  run,  the  co7nmander  gives 
orders.  Consequently  tlic  verb  is  of  the  third  person 
also. 

But  the  pronoun  with  which  such  a  noun-substan- 
tive may  be  placed  in  apposition,  may  be  a  pronoun  of 
cither  person,  the  first  or  second :  /  or  thou — /  tlce  corrv- 
mander — thou  the  conmiander. — In  this  case  the  con- 
struction requires  consideration.  With  which  does  the 
verb  agree  ?  with  the  substantive  which  requires  a  third 
person?  or  with  the  pronoun  which  requires  a  first  or 
second  1 

Undoubtedly  the  idea  which  comes  first  is  the  leading 
idea  ;  and,  undoubtedly,  the  idea  which  explains,  qualifies, 
or  defines  it,  is  the  subordinate  idea  :  and,  undoubtedly,  it 
is  the  leading  idea  which  determines  the  construction  of 
the  verb.  We  may  illustrate  this  from  the  analogy  of  a 
similar  construction  in  respect  to  number — a  man  iL'ith  a 
horse  and  a  gig  meets  me  on  the  road.  Here  the  ideas 
are  three  ;  nevertheless  the  verb  is  singular.  No  addi- 
tion of  subordinate  elements  interferes  with  the  construc- 
tion that  is  determined  by  the  leading  idea.  In  the 
expression  /,  your  m,aster,  the  ideas  are  two ;  viz.,  the 
idea  expressed  by  I,  and  the  idea  expressed  by  master. 
Nevertheless,  as  the  one  only  explains  or  defines  the 
other,  the  construction  is  the  same  as  if  the  idea  were 
single.  Your  master,  I,  is  in  the  same  condition.  The 
general  statement  is  made  concerning  the  master,  and 
it  is  intended  to  say  what  he  does.     The  word  /  merely 


832  CONCORD   OF  VERBS. 

defines  the  expression  by  stating  avIio  the  master  is. 
Of  the  two  expressions  the  latter  is  the  awkwardcst. 
The  construction,  hoAvever,  is  the  same  for  both. 

From  the  analysis  of  the  structure  of  complex  subjects 
of  the  kind  in  question,  combined  with  a  rule  concerning 
the  position  of  the  subject,  which  will  soon  be  laid  down,  I 
believe  that,  fqr  all  single  propositions,  the  foregoing  rule 
is  absolute. 

Rule. — In  all  single  propositions  the  verb  agrees  in 
person  with  the  noun  (whether  substantive  or  pronoun) 
■which  comes  first. 

§  477.  But  the  expression  it  is  I  t/our  master,  who 
command  (or  commands^  you,  is  not  a  single  proposition. 
It  is  a  sentence  containing  two  propositions. 

1.  It  is  I. 

2.  Who  commands  you. 

Here  the  word  rnaster  is,  so  to  say,  undistributed.  It 
may  belong  to  either  clause  of  the  sentence,  i.  e..  the  whole 
sentence  may  be  divided  into 

Either — It  is  I  your  master — 

Or — your  master  who  commands  you. 

This  is  the  first  point  to  observe.  The  next  is  that 
the  verb  in  the  second  clause  {command  or  commands)  is 
governed,  not  by  either  the  personal  pronoun  or  the  sub- 
stantive, but  by  the  relative,  i.  e.,  in  the  particular  case 
before  us,  not  by  either  /  or  master,  but  by  who. 

And  this  brings  us  to  the  following  question — with 
which  of  the  two  antecedents  does  the  relative  agree  ? 
with  /  or  with  master  7 

This  may  be  answered  by  the  two  following  rules ; — 

Rule  1. — When    the    two    antecedents    are    in    the 


CONCORD   OF  VERBS.  333 

same    proposition,    the    relative    agrees   with    tlie    first 
Thus— 

1,  It  is  /  your  master — 

2.  Who  command  you. 

Rule  2. — When  the  two  antecedents  are  in  different 
propositions,  the  relative  agrees  "with  the  second. 
Thus— 

1.  It  is  I— 

2.  Your  masOr  who  commands  you. 

This,  however,  is  not  all.  What  determines  "whether 
the  two  antecedents  shall  be  in  the  same  or  in  different 
propositions  ?  I  believe  that  the  following  rules  for  what 
may  be  called  the  distribution  of  the  substantive  antece- 
dent will  bear  criticism. 

Rule  1.  That  when  there  is  any  natural  connection 
between  the  substantive  antecedent  and  the  verb  governed 
by  the  relative,  the  antecedent  belongs  to  the  second 
clause.  Thus,  in  the  expression  just  quoted,  the  word 
master  is  logically  connected  with  the  word  command; 
and  this  fact  makes  the  expression,  It  is  I  your  master 
rcho  commands  you  the  better  of  the  two. 

Ride  2.  That  when  there  is  no  natural  connection  be- 
tween the  substantive  antecedent  and  the  verb  governed 
by  the  relative,  the  antecedent  belongs  to  the  first  clause. 
It  is  I,  John,  who  comi?iand  (not  commands)  you. 

To  recapitulate,  the  train  of  reasoning  has  been  as 
follows : — 

1.  The  person  of  the  second  verb  is  the  person  of  the 
relative. 

2.  The  person  of  the  relative  is  that  of  one  of  two 
antecedents. 

3.  Of  such  two  antecedents  the  relative  agrees  with 
the  one  which  stands  in  the  same  proposition  with  itself. 


334  COXCORD   OF   VERBS. 

4.  Which  position  is  determined  by  the  connection  or 
•want  of  connection  between  the  substantive  antecedent 
and  tlic  verb  governed  by  the  relative. 

Respecting  the  person  of  the  verb  in  the  first  proposi- 
tion of  a  complex  sentence  there  is  no  doubt.  /,  your 
master,  who  coinmands  you  to  make  haste,  am,  (not  is) 
in  a  hurry.  <  Here,  /  atn  in  a  hurry  is  the  first 
proposition ;  who  co7nmands  you  to  ma/ce  haste,  the 
second. 

It  is  not  difficult  to  see  why  the  construction  of  sen- 
tences consisting  of  two  propositions  is  open  to  an  amount 
of  latitude  which  is  not  admissible  in  the  construction  of 
single  propositions.  As  long  as  the  different  parts  of  a 
complex  idea  are  contained  Avithin  the  limits  of  a  single 
proposition,  their  subordinate  character  is  easily  dis- 
cerned. When,  however,  they  amount  to  whole  proposi- 
tions, they  take  the  appearance  of  being  independent 
membei's  of  the  sentence. 

§  478.  The  concord  of  number. — It  is  believed  that 
the  following  three  rules  will  carry  us  through  all  diffi- 
culties of  the  kind  just  exhibited. 

Rule  1.  That  the  verb  agrees  with  the  subject,  and 
with  nothing  but  the  subject.  The  only  way  to  justify 
such  an  expression  as  the  wages  of  sin  is  death,  is  to  con- 
sider death  not  as  the  subject,  but  as  the  predicate;  in 
other  words,  to  consider  the  construction  to  be,  death  is 
the  wages  of  sin. 

Rule  2.  That,  except  in  the  case  of  the  word  there,  the 
word  Avhich  comes  first  is  generally  the  subject. 

Rule  3.  That  no  number  of  connected  singular  nouns 
can  govern  a  plural  verb,  unless  they  be  connected  by  a 
copulative  conjunction.  The  sun  and  inoon  shine, — the 
sun  in  conjunction  with  the  moon  shines. 

§  479.   Plural  subjects  with  singular  'predicates. — 


CONCORD   OF  VERBS.  335 

The  wages  of  sin  are  death. — Honest  men  are  the  salt  of 
the  earth. 

Singular  subjects  with  plural  predicates. — These  con- 
structions are  rai'er  tlian  the  preceding  :  inasmuch  as  two 
or  more  persons  (or  things)  are  oftener  spoken  of  as  being 
equivalent  to  one,  than  one  person  (or  thing)  is  spoken  of 
as  being  equivalent  to  two  or  more. 

Sixpence  is  twelve  halfpcnnios. 
He  is  all  liead  anil  shoulders. 
Vuluera  totus  erat. 
Tu  es  deliciaj  meaj. 

'Ektoo,  arap  av  fioi  iffai  iraTrjp  Kal  Trirvia  /xijTrip, 
'H5«  KaalyvTjToi,  crv  5e'  fioi  daXfohs  irapaKoir^s. 


336  GOVERNMENT  OF  VERBS. 


CHAPTER  XVII. 

ON    THE    GOVERNMENT    OF    VERBS. 

§  480.  The  government  of  verbs  is  of  two  sorts,  (1.) 
objective,  and  (2.)  modal. 

It  is  objective  where  tbe  noun  wliich  follows  tbe  verb 
is  the  name  of  some  object  affected  by  the  action  of  the 
verb, — as  he  strikes  me  :  he  wounds  the  enemy. 

It  is  modal  when  the  noun  which  follows  the  verb  is 
not  the  name  of  any  object  affected  by  the  verb,  but  the 
name  of  some  object  explaining  the  manner  in  which  the 
action  of  the  verb  takes  place,  the  instrument  with  which 
it  is  done,  the  end  for  which  it  is  done,  &c. 

The  government  of  all  transitive  verbs  is  necessarily 
objective.  It  may  also  be  modal, — /  strike  the  enemy 
with  the  sword  =ferio  hosteni  gladio. 

The  government  of  all  intransitive  verbs  can  only  be 
modal, — /  walk  with  the  stick.  When  we  say,  I  walk  the 
horse,  the  word  walk  has  changed  its  meaning,  and  signi- 
fies viake  to  walk,  and  is,  by  the  very  fact  of  its  being  fol- 
lowed by  the  name  of  an  object,  converted  from  an  intran- 
sitive  into  a  transitive  verb. 

The  modal  construction  may  also  be  called  the  adver- 
bial construction  ;  because  the  effect  of  the  noun  is  akin 
to  that  of  an  adverb, — I  fight  with  bravery  =  I  fight 
bravely  :  he  walks  a  king  =  he-ivalks  regally.  The  modal 
(or  adverbial)  construction,  sometimes  takes  the  appear- 
ance of  the  objective  :  inasmuch  as  intransitive  verbs  are 


goveen:mknt  of  verbs.  337 

frequently  followed  by  a  substantive,  c.  g.,  to  sleep  the 
sleep  of  the  righteous.  Here,  nevertheless,  this  is  no 
proof  of  government.  For  a  verb  to  be  capable  of  go- 
"verning  an  objective  case,  it  must  be  a  verb  signifying  an 
action  affecting  an  object;  Avbich  is  not  the  case  here. 
The  sentence  means,  to  sleep  as  the  righteous  sleep,  or 
according  to  the  sleep  of  the  righteous. 


16 


338  THE   PARTICIPLES. 


CHAPTER  XA^TL 


ON    THE    TAUTICIPLES. 


§  481.  The  present  participle,  or  the  participle  in  -ing, 
must  be  considered  in  respect  to  its  relations  with  the  sub- 
stantive in  -ing.  Dying-day  is,  probably,  no  more  a  par- 
ticiple than  morning-walk.  In  respect  to  the  syntax  of 
such  expressions  as  the  forthcoming,  I  consider  that  they 
are  either  participles  or  substantives. 

1.  "When  substantives,  they  are  in  regimen,  and  govern 
a  genitive  case —  WJtat  is  the  meaning  of  the  lady^s  hold- 
ing up  her  train  7  Here  the  word  holding  =  the  act  of 
liolding. —  Quid  est  significatio  clcvationis  jyalloi  de 
parte  fanninoi. 

2.  When  participles,  they  are  in  apposition  or  concord, 
and  "would,  if  inflected,  appear  in  the  same  case  with 
the  substantive,  or  pronoun,  preceding  them — What  is 
the  meaning  of  the  lady  holding  np  her  train!  Here  the 
word  holding  =  in  the  act  of  holding,  and  answers  to  the 
Latin  fcemintB  elevantis. —  Q,aid  est  significatio  fceniincp 
elevantis  pallam  7 

§  482.  The  past  participle  corresponds  not  with  the 
Greek  form  rv'm6fievo<i,  but  with  the  form  TeTVfi/j.evo<;.  1 
am  beaten  is  essentially  a  combination,  expressive  not  of 
present  but  of  past  time,  just  like  the  Latin  sutn  verbera- 
tus.  Its  Greek  equivalent  is  not  elfxi  rv'rrr6nevo<i  =  / 
'im  a  man  in  the  act  of  being  beaten,  but  et/iJ  rerv^ 


THE    PARTICIPLES.  339 

u.€Po<i  =  I  am  a  man  who  hast  been  beaten.  It  is  past  in 
respect  to  the  action,  tliough  present  in  respect  to  the 
state  brought  about  by  the  action.  This  essentially  past 
clement  in  the  so-called  present  expression,  /  am  beaten, 
will  be  airain  referred  to. 


SIO  THE  MOODS. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 


ON    THE    MOODS. 


§  483.  The  infinitive  mood  is  a  noun.  The  current 
rule  that  when  two  verbs  coine  together  the  latter  is 
jylaced  in  the  infinitive  mood,  means  that  one  verb  can 
govern  another  only  by  converting  it  into  a  noun — /  begin 
to  move  =  I  begin  the  act  of  moving.  Verbs,  as  verbs, 
can  only  come  together  in  the  way  of  apposition — /  irri- 
tate, I  beat,  I  talk  at  hi?n,  I  call  him  names,  &c. 

§  484.  The  construction,  however,  of  English  infini- 
tives is  two  fold.     (1.)  Objective.     (2.)  Gerundial. 

When  one  verb  is  followed  by  another  without  the 
preposition  to,  the  construction  must  be  considered  to 
have  groAvn  out  of  the  objective  case,  or  fi'om  the  form 
in  -a7i. 

Such  is  the  case  with  the  following  words,  and,  pro- 
bably, with  others : 

I  may  go,  7iot  I  may  to  go. 

I  might  go,  —  I  might  to  go. 

I  can  move,  —  I  can  to  move. 

I  could  move,  —  I  could  to  move. 

I  ■will  speak,  —  I  -will  to  speak. 

I  would  speak,  —  I  -would  to  speak. 

I  shall  -wait,  —  I  shall  to  -wait 

I  should  wait,  —  I  should  to  -wait 

Let  me  go,  —  Let  me  to  go. 

He  let  me  go,  —  He  let  me  to  go. 

I  do  speak,  —  I  do  to  speak. 


THE   MOODS.  341 

I  did  speak,     nut    I  did  to  speak. 
I  dare  go,  —    I  dare  to  go. 

I  durst  go,         —    I  durst  to  go. 

This,  in  the  present  English,  is  the  rarer  of  the  t^YO 
constructions. 

When  a  verb  is  followed  by  another,  preceded  by  the 
preposition  to,  the  construction  must  be  considered  to  have 
grown  out  of  the  so-called  gerund,  i.  e.,  the  form  in  -nne, 
i.  e.,  the  dative  case — /  hcgm  to  move.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  great  majority  of  English  verbs. 

§485.  /m/)era^'u"e5  have  three  peculiarities.  (1.)  They 
can  only,  in  English,  be  used  in  the  second  person — go 
thou  on,  get  you  gone,  &c. :  (2.)  They  take  pronouns  after, 
instead  of  before  them :  (3.)  They  often  omit  the  pronoun 
altogether. 


342  THE   TENSES. 


CHAPTER   XX. 


ON    THE    TENSES 


§  486.  Notwithstanding  its  name,  tlic  present 
tense  in  English  does  not  express  a  strictly  prcsetit  action. 
It  rather  expresses  an  habitual  one.  He  sjjcaks  wcU=he 
is  a  good  speaker.  If  a  man  means  to  say  that  he  is  in 
the  act  of  speaking,  he  says  I  am  speakiyig. 

It  has  also,  especially  "when  combined  with  a  subjunc- 
tive mood,  a  future  power — I  heat  you  (=  I  will  heat  yoit) 
if  you  doiHt  leave  off. 

§  487.  The  English  preterite  is  the  equiA-alent,  not  to 
the  Greek  perfect  but  the  Greek  aorist.  I  heat  =  hv^a 
not  reTV(f)a.  The  true  perfect  is  expressed,  in  English,  by 
the  auxiliary  have  4-  the  past  participle. 


SYNTAX  OF  PERSOXS  OF  VERBS,        343 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

SYNTAX  OF  THE  PERSONS  OF  VERBS. 

§  488.  The  concord  of  perso7is. — A  difficulty  that 
occurs  frequently  in  the  Latin  language  is  rare  in 
English.  In  expressions  like  ego  et  ille  followed  by  a 
verb,  there  arises  a  question  as  to  the  person  in  which 
that  verb  should  be  used.  Is  it  to  be  in  the  first  person 
in  order  to  agree  with  ego^  or  in  the  third  in  order  to 
ageee  with  ille  ?  For  the  sake  of  laying  down  a  rule  upon 
these  and  similar  points,  the  classical  grammarians  ar- 
range the  persons  (as  they  do  the  genders)  according  to 
their  digiiiti/,  making  the  verb  (or  adjective  if  it  be  a 
question  of  gender)  agree  with  the  most  ivorthij.  In  re- 
spect to  persons,  the  first  is  more  worthy  than  the  second, 
and  the  second  more  worthy  than  the  third.  Hence,  the 
Latins  said — 

E[io  et  Balbus  sustaUmus  manus. 
Til  ct  Balbus  sastuUstis  inanus. 

Now,  in  English,  the  plural  form  is  the  same  fur  all 
three  persons.  Hence  we  say  I  cmd  you  are  friends,  you 
and  I  are  friends,  I  and  he  are  friends,  &c.,  so  that 
for  the  practice  of  language,  the  question  as  to  the  rela 
tive  dignity  of  the  three  persons  is  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence. 

Nevertheless,  it  i7iay  occur  even  in  English.  AVhen- 
cver  two  or  more  pronouns  of  different  persons,  nnd  of 
the  singular  number,  folloAV  each  other  disjunctively- 
the  question  of  concord  arises.     /  or  yon, — you  or  hn, 


344  SYNT.VJ!:   OF   TERSONS   OP  VERBS. 

— he  or  J.     I  believe  that,  in  these  cases,  the  rule  is  as 
follows  : — 

1.  Whenever  the  Avords  either  or  neither  precede  the 
pronouns,  the  verb  is  in  the  third  person.  Either  you  or 
T  is  ill  the  icrong  ;* neither  yon  nor  lis  in  the  wrong. 

2.  AVhenevcr  the  disjunctive  is  simple  [i.  e.  unaccom- 
jianied  "vvith  the  word  cither  or  neither)  the  verb  agrees 
with  thc^r^;  bf  the  two  pronouns. 

/(or  he)  am  in  tlie  wroni^. 
lie  (or  /)  is  in  the  -WTOug. 
Thou  (or  he)  art  in  the  -wrong. 
He  (or  thou)  is  in  the  wrong. 

Now,  provided  that  they  are  correct,  it  is  clear  that 
the  English  language  knows  nothing  about  the  relative 
degrees  of  dignity  between  these  three  pronouns  ;  since 
its  habit  is  to  make  the  verb  agree  with  the  one  which 
is  placed  first — whatever  may  be  the  person.  I  am 
strongly  inclined  to  believe  that  the  same  is  the  case  in 
Latin;  in  Avhich  case  (in  the  sentence  ego  et  Balbus  sus- 
ivlimus  manus)  snstnlimus  agrees,  in  person,  with  ego, 
not  because  the  first  person  is  the  worthiest,  but  because 
it  comes  first  in  the  proposition. 

§  489.  In  the  Chapter  on  the  Impersonal  Verbs,  it  is 
stated  that  the  construction  of  rne-thinks  is  peculiar. 

This  is  because  in  Anglo-Saxon  the  word  )>incan  = 
seem.  Hence  me-thinks  is  (^alveTal  /xot,  or  niihi  vicletiir, 
and  me  is  a  dative  case,  not  an  accusative. 

The  \encan  =  think^  was,  in  Anglo-Saxon,  a  different 
word. 


VOICES   OF  VERBS.  3i5 


CHAPTER   XXII. 


ON    THE    VOICES    OF    VERES. 


§  490.  In  English  tlicrc  is  neither  a  passive  nor  a 
mitUlle  voice. 

The  follcwing  couplet  from  Dryden's  "  Mac  Flccnoc  " 
exhibits  a  construction  "nhich  requires  explanation : — 

An  ancient  fabric,  raised  to  'inform  the  sight, 
lliere  stood  of  yore,  and  Barbican  it  h'xjht. 

Here  the  -word  hight^icas  called,  and  seems  to  pre- 
sent an  instance  of  the  participle  being  used  in  a  passive 
sense  Trithout  the  so-called  verb  substantive.  Yet  it  does 
no  such  thing.  The  word  is  no  participle  at  all ;  but  a 
simple  preterite.  Certain  verbs  are  naturalhj  either 
passive  or  active,  as  one  of  two  allied  meanings  may  pre- 
dominate. To  he  called  is  passive ;  so  is,  to  he  heaten. 
But,  to  hear  as  a  name  is  active  ;  so  is,  to  take  a  heating. 
The  word,  hight,  is  of  the  same  class  of  verbs  with  the 
Latin  vapulo  ;  and  it  is  the  same  as  the  Latin  word,  duo. 
— Barhican  chat  ==  Barhkan  aiidivit  =  Barhican  it 
hi":ht. 


346  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 


CHAPTER   XXIII. 


ON    THE    AUXILIARY    VERBS. 


§  491.  The  auxiliary  verbs,  in  English,  play  a  most 
important  part  in  the  syntax  of  the  language.  They  may 
be  classified  upon  a  variety  of  principles.  The  following, 
however,  arc  all  that  need  here  be  applied. 

A.  Classification  of  auxiliaries  according  to  their  in- 
flection or  7ion-inflectional  powers. — Inflectional  aux- 
iliaries are  those  that  may  either  replace  or  be  replaced 
by  an  inflection.  Thus — /  am  struck  =  the  Latin  ferior, 
and  the  Greek  rvTrrofiat.  These  auxiliaries  are  in  the 
same  relation  to  verbs  that  prepositions  are  to  nouns. 
The  inflectional  auxiliaries  are, — 

1.  Have ;  equivalent  to  an  inflection  in  the  way  of 
tense — I  have  bitten  ^=  mo-mo'rdi. 

2.  Shall;  ditto.     I  shall  call  =  voc-abo. 

3.  Will;  ditto.     I loill  call=voc-abo. 

4.  Blay ;  equivalent  to  an  inflection  in  the  way  of 
mood.     I  am  come  that  I  may  see=  vcnio  ut  vid-ea?n. 

5.  Be  ;  equivalent  to  an  inflection  in  the  way  of  voice. 
To  be  beaten  =  verberari,  TvvTeaOai. 

6.  Am.,  art,  is,  are  ;  ditto.  Also  equivalent  to  an  in- 
flection in  the  way  of  tense.     I  am  moving  —  viove-o. 

T.  Was,  were  ;  ditto,  ditto.  T  was  beaten  =  i-TV(hd7]v. 
T  was  7noving=  move-bain. 

Do,  can,  must,  and  let,  are  non-inflectional  auxiliaries. 

B.  Classification  of  auxiliaries   according  to  their 


AUXILIARY  VERBS.  347 

non-auxiliary  signijicatioiis. — The  power  of  the  word 
have  in  the  combination  of  I  have  a  horse  is  clear  enough. 
It  means  possession.  The  power  of  the  same  word  in  the 
combination  I  have  been  is  not  so  clear ;  nevertheless  it  is 
a  power  which  has  grown  out  of  the  idea  of  possession. 
This  shows  that  the  power  of  a  verb  as  an  auxiliary  may 
be  a  modification  of  its  original  power  ;  i.  e.,  of  the  power 
it  has  in  non-auxiliary  constructions.  Sometimes  the 
difierenco  is  very  little  :  the  word  let,  in  let  us  go,  has  its 
natural  sense  of  permission  unimpaired.  Sometimes  it  is 
lost  altogether.     Can  and  ma)/  exist  only  as  auxiliaries. 

1.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  possession — 
have. 

2.  Auxiliaries  derived  from  the  idea  of  existence — be, 
is,  was. 

3.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  future  destina- 
tion, dependent  upon  circumstances  external  to  the  agent 
— shall.  There  are  etymological  reasons  for  believing  that 
shall  is  no  present  tense,  but  a  perfect. 

4.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  future  dcstina 
tion,  dependent  upon  the  volition  of  the  agent — ivill. 
Shall  is  simply  predictive ;  ivill  is  predictive  and  pro- 
juissive  as  well. 

5.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  power,  dependent 
upon  circumstances  external  to  the  agent — ?na!/. 

6.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  power,  dependent 
upon  circumstances  internal  to  the  agent — can.  May  is 
simply  permissive ;  can  is  potential.  In  respect  to  the 
idea  of  power  residing  in  the  agent  being  the  cause  which 
determines  a  contingent  action,  can  is  in  the  same  relation 
to  may  as  will  is  to  shall. 

"  3fai/  et  can,   cura   eorum  prajteritis   iniperfectl*,   7nif/kt   et   couhl, 
potentiam  innuuot:  cura  hoc  taraen  liiscrimino :  viay  et  ni';i/it  vil  de  jure 


348  AUXILIARY   VERBS. 

rcl  s;iUuni  lie  rci  possibilitatc,  dicuiitur,  at  can  ct  could  dc  viribua  iigcDtis^ 
— Wallis,  p.  Iu7. 

7.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  sufferance — let. 

8.  Auxiliary  derived  from  tlic  idea  of  necessity — 
must. 

"  Must  necessitatem  iimuit.  Dcbco,  oportot,  r  ecosse  est  m-ere,  /  mifit 
burn.  Aliquando  scd  rarius  in  pr.-etcrito  dicitur  must  (quasi  ex  must'd 
Bcu  viust't  coutractum).  Sic,  si  de  prajterito  dicatur,  he  must  (.seu 
muaCt)  be  bumf,  oportebat  airl  seu  ncccsse  habuit  ut  ureretur." — Wallis, 
107. 

9.  Auxiliary  derived  from  the  idea  of  action — do. 

C.  Classification  of  auxiliary  verbs  in  respect  to  their 
mode  of  construction. — Auxiliary  verbs  combine  with 
others  in  three  ways. 

1.  With  participles. — a)  With  the  present,  or  active, 
participle — /  a7n  speaking- :  b)  With  the  past,  or  passive, 
participle — I  ain  beaten,  I  have  beaten. 

2.  With  infinitives. — a)  With  the  objective  infinitive 
■ — I  can  speak  :  b)  With  the  gerundial  infinitive — I  have 
to  speak. 

3.  With  both  infinitives  and  j^f^rticiples. — /  shall 
have  done,  I  mean  to  have  done. 

D.  Auxiliary  verbs  may  be  classified  according  to 
their  effect. — Thus — have  makes  the  combination  in  which 
it  appears  equivalent  to  a  tense  ;  &g  to  a  passive  form ; 
may  to  a  sign  of  mood,  (fcc. 

This  sketch  of  the  different  lights  under  which  aux- 
iliary verbs  may  be  viewed,  has  been  written  for  the  sake 
of  illustrating,  rather  than  exhausting,  the  subject. 

5  402.  The  combination  of  the  auxiliary,  have,  with  the 
past  participle  requires  notice.  It  is,  here,  advisable  to 
make  the  following  classifications. 

1.  The  combination  Avith  the  participle  of  a  transitive 


AUXILIARY   VERBS.  o-l9 

verb. — /  have  ridden  t/ic   liorse ;  thou  Juisl  brukeii  the 
sword  ;  he  has  sjnitten  the  oiemy. 

2.  The  combination  with  the  participle  of  an  intra?iH- 
'/t'e  verb, — I  have  waited  ;  thou  hast  hungered;  he  has 
slept. 

3.  The  combination -with  the  participle  of  the  verb  sub- 
stantive, I  have  been  ;  thou  hast  been  ;  he  has  been. 

•It  is  by  examples  of  the  first  of  these  three  divisions 
that  the  true  construction  is  to  be  shown. 

For  an  object  of  any  sort  to  be  in  the  possession  of  a 
person,  it  must  previously  have  existed.  If  I  possess  a 
horse,  that  horse  must  have  had  a  previous  existence. 

Hence,  in  all  expressions  like  I  have  ridden  a  horse, 
there  are  two  ideas,  a  past  idea  in  the  participle,  and  a 
present  idea  in  the  word  denoting  possession. 

For  an  object  of  any  sort,  affected  in  a  particular 
manner,  to  be  in  the  possession  of  a  person,  it  must 
previously  have  been  affected  in  the  manner  requrred. 
If  I  possess  a  horse  that  has  been  ridden,  the  riding 
must  have  talccn  place  before  I  mention  the  fact  of  the 
ridden  horse  being  in  my  possession  ;  inasmuch  as  I  speak 
of  it  as  a  thing  already  done, — the  participle,  ridden, 
being  in  the  past  tense. 

/  Jiavc  ridden  a  liorse  =  /  lia  ve  a  horse  ridden  =  I  have 
a  horse  as  a  ridden  horse,  or  (changing  the  gender  and 
dealing  with  the  word  ho7'so  as  a  thing)  I  have  a  horse  as 
a  ridden  thing. 

In  this  case  the  syntax  is  of  the  usual  sort.  (1) 
Have  =  oivn  =  habeo  =  tcneo  ;  (2)  horse  is  the  accusa- 
tive case  equuni  :  (3)  ridden  is  a  past  participle  agreeing 
cither  with  horse,  or  icith  a  icord  in  apposition  with  it 
understood. 

Mark  the  Avords  in  italics.  The  word  ridden  does 
not  agree  with  horse,   since  it  is  of  the  neuter  sender. 


350  AUXILIARY   VERBS. 

Neither  if  wc  said  I  have  ridden  the  horses,  would  it  aj^rco 
Avitli  horses  ;  since  it  is  of  the  singular  number. 

The  true  construction  is  arrived  at  by  supplying  the 
Mord  thins^.  J  have  a  horse  as  a  ridden  thing  =  haheo 
equum  equitation  (neuter).  Here  the  construction  is  the 
same  as  tristc  lupus  stabulis. 

I  have  horses  as  a  ridden  thing  =  habeo  equos  cquita- 
tuni  (singular,  neuter).     Here  the  construction  is — 

"  Triste maturis  frugibus  iiiibres, 

Aiboribus  venti,  nobis  Amaryllidos  irae." 

or  in  Greek — 

Afivuv  yvvai^v  al  SI  oioiviav  yova'i. 

The  classical  writers  supply  instances  of  this  use  of 
have.  Co)npcrtum  habeo,  milites,  verba  viris  virtutem 
non  addere  =  /  have  discovered  =^  I  am  in  j)ossession  of 
the  discovery.  Qua)  cum  ita  sint,  satis  de  Caisare  hoc 
dictufji  habeo. 

The  combination  of  have  v»'ith  an  intransitive  verb  is 
irreducible  to  the  idea  of  possession  :  indeed,  it  is  illogical. 
In  /  have  waited,  we  cannot  make  the  idea  expressed  by 
the  word  waited  the  object  of  the  verb  Jiave  or  possess. 
The  expi'cssion  has  become  a  part  of  language  by  means 
of  the  extension  of  a  false  analogy.  It  is  an  instance  of  an 
illegitimate  imitation. 

The  combination  of  have  with  been  is  more  illogical 
still,  and  is  a  stronger  instance  of  the  influence  of  an 
illegitimate  imitation.  In  German  and  Italian,  where 
even  intransitive  verbs  are  combined  with  the  equivalents 
to  the  English  have  (  haben,  and  avere),  the  verb  sub- 
stantive is  not  so  combined  ;  on  the  contrary,  the  combina- 
tions are 

Italian  ;  io  sono  stato  =  /  am  been. 
German ;  ich  bin  geioesen  =  ditto. 

which  is  logical. 


AUXILIARY   VERBS.  351 

§  403  /  nni  to  speak. — Three  facts  explain  this 
idiom. 

1.  The  idea  of  direction  towards  an  object  convej'cd 
by  the  dative  case,  and  by  combinations  equivalent  to  it. 

2.  Tlic  extent  to  -which  the  ideas  of  necessity,  obliira- 
tion,  or  intention  are  connected  "with  the  idea  of  something 
that  has  to  be  done,  or  something  toiDards  which  some 
action  has  a  tendency. 

3.  The  fact  that  expressions  like  the  one  in  question 
historically  represent  an  original  dative  case,  or  its  equi- 
valent ;  since  to  speak  grows  out  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  form 
to  sprecanne,  "which,  although  called  a  gerund,  is  really  a 
dative  case  of  the  infinitive  mood. 

When  Johnson  thought  that,  in  the  phrase  he  is  to 
blame,  the  "word  blame  "was  a  noun,  if  he  meant  a  noun 
in  the  ysaj  that  culpa  is  a  noun,  his  vic"W  Avas  "wrong.  But 
if  he  meant  a  noun  in  the  "way  that  culpare,  ad  culpandnm, 
are  nouns,  it  "^as  right. 

§  494.  /  a?7i  to  blame. — This  idiom  is  one  degree 
more  complex  than  the  previous  one ;  since  /  am  to 
blame  =  /  a^n  to  be  blamed.  As  earl}",  hoAvevcr,  as  the 
Anglo-Saxon  period  the  gerunds  "\>'ere  liable  to  be  used  in 
a  passive  sense  :  he  is  to  Injigcnne  =  i\oi  he  is  to  love,  but 
he  is  to  be  loved. 

The  principle  of  this  confusion  may  be  discovered  by 
consi<lcring  that  an  object  to  be  blamed,  is  an  object  for 
some  one  to  blame,  an  object  to  be  loved  is  an  object  for 
some  one  to  love. 

§  495.  I  a7n  beaten. — This  is  a  present  combination, 
and  it  is  present  on  the  strength  of  the  verb  am,  not 
on  the  strength  of  the  participle  beaten,  "which  is  pre- 
terite. 

The  follo"wing  table  exhibits  the  expedients  on  the 
part   of   the    different    languages   of    the    Gothic    stock. 


AUXILIARY   VERBS. 


since  the  loss  of  the  proper  passive  form  of  the  Moeso 
Gothic. 


Language 
Jfa so-Gothic  . 
Old  High  German 
Xotker    . 

Middle  High  German 
Xew  High  German. 
Old  Saxon 
Middle  Butch 
Kew  Dutch 
Old  Frisian  , 
A  nglo-Saxon 
English 
Old  Norse 
Swedish  . 
Danish 


Latin  dalur, 

gibada, 

ist,  wirdit  kepan, 

^virt  kebun, 

wirt  gcbeii, 

•wirJ  gcgeben, 

is,  wirtheth  geblian, 

cs,  blift  ghegbcven, 

wordt  gcgeven, 

iverth  ejeven, 

Aveorded  gifcn, 

is  given, 

er  gcfinn, 

gifves, 

blivcr,  Yordcr  given, 


Latin*  datus  est. 
ist,  vas,  varth  gibaua. 
-was,  -vraitli  kepan. 
ist  kcbeii. 
ist  geben. 

ist  gegeben  ■wordeii. 
was,  wartb  gcbhan. 
Avaert,  blef  ghegcveo. 
es  gegeven  worden. 
is  ejeven. 
is  gifen. 

has  been  given, 
hefr  verit  gefinn. 
bar  varit  gifven. 
bar  varet  givca 


"  Deutsche  Grammatik,  iv.  19.' 


SYNTAX   OF   ADVERBS.  353 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 


THE    SYNTAX    OF    ADVERBS. 


§  49G.  The  syntax  of  tlic  adverb  is  simpler  than  that 
of  any  other  part  of  speech,  excepting,  perhaps,  that  of  the 
adjective. 

Adverbs  have  no  concord.   , 

Neither  have  they  any  government.  They  seem,  in- 
deed, to  have  it,  -when  they  are  in  the  comparative  or 
superlative  degree ;  but  it  is  merely  apparent.  In  this 
is  better  than  that,  the  Avord  tliat  is  governed  neither  by 
hotter  nor  by  than.  It  is  not  governed  at  all.  It  is 
a  nominative  case ;  the  subject  of  a  separate  proposi- 
tion. TJus  is  better  (i.  e.,  more  good)  than  that  is  good. 
Even  if  Vr-e  admit  such  an  expression  as  he  is  stronger 
than  me  to  be  good  English,  there  is  no  adverbial  govern- 
ment. Titan,  if  it  govern  me  at  all,  governs  it  as  a  pre- 
position. 

The  position  of  an  adverb  is,  in  respect  to  matters  of 
syntax,  pre-eminently  parenthetic ;  i.  c,  it  may  be  omitted 
without  injuring  the  construction.  He  is  fighting — now  ; 
he  icas  fighting — then  ;  lie  fights — bravely  ;  IaJ7i  almost 
— tired,  &c. 

h  497.  By  referring  to  the  Chapter  on  the  Adverbs, 
-we  shall  find  that  the  neuter  adjective  is  frequently  con- 
verted into  an  adverb  by  deflection.  As  any  neuter 
adjective  may  be  so  deflected,  we  may  justify  such 
expressions   as  full  (for  fidlij)  as   conspicuous  (f )r  con- 


854  SYNTAX   OF  ADVERBS. 

spicuouslij),  and  2)cculiar  (for  peculiarly)  had  grace,  (fee. 
"\Vc  are  not,  however,  bound  to  imitate  everything  that  we 
can  justify. 

§  498.  The  termination  -lij  was  originally  adjectival. 
At  present  it  is  a  derivational  syllable  by  which  we 
can  convert  an  adjective  into  an  adverb  :  brave,  brave  ly. 
"When,  however,  the  adjective  ends  in  -ly  already,  the 
formation  is  awkward.  /  eat  my  daily  bread  is  unex- 
ceptionable English  ;  /  eat  my  bread  daily  is  exception- 
able. One  of  two  things  must  here  take  place :  the 
two  syllables  ly  are  packed  into  one  (the  full  expression 
being  dal-li-ly),  or  else  the  construction  is  that  of  a  neuter 
adjective  deflected. 

Adverbs  are  convertible.  The  tJccn  men  =  ol  vvv  ^p6- 
Tot,  (fee.  This  will  be  seen  more  clearly  in  the  Chapter  on 
Conjunctions. 

§  499.  It  has  been  remarked  that  in  expressions  like 
he  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  righteous,  the  construction  is 
advei'bial.  So  it  is  in  expressions  like  he  walked  a  mile, 
it  weighs  a  pound.  The  ideas  expressed  by  mile  and 
pound  are  not  the  names  of  anything  that  serves  as 
either  object  or  instrument  to  the  verb.  They  only 
denote  the  manner  of  the  action,  and  define  the  meaning 
of  the  verb. 

§  500.  From  whence,  from  thence. — This  is  an  expres- 
sion which,  if  it  have  not  taken  root  in  our  language, 
is  likely  to  do  so.  It  is  an  instance  of  excess  of 
expression  in  the  way  of  syntax  ;  the  -co  denoting  direc- 
tion from  a  place,  and  the  preposition  doing  the  same. 
It  is  not  so  important  to  determine  what  this  construc- 
tion t.9,  as  to  suggest  what  it  is  not.  It  is  not  an 
instance  of  an  adverb  governed  by  a  preposition.  If 
tlie  two  words  be  dealt  with  as  logically  separate, 
whence  (or  thence)  must  be  a  noun  =  which  place  (or  that 


SYNTAX    OF   ADVERBS.  855 

'place) ;  just  as  froin  fhcn  till  noio  ^from  that  time  to 
this.  But  if  (which  is  the  better  view)  the  two  words  be 
dealt  with  as  one  (/.  e.,  as  an  improper  compound)  the  pre- 
position from  has  lost  its  natural  power,  and  become  the 
clement  of  an  adverb. 


S5G  ON  PREPOSITIONS. 


CHAPTER   XXV. 


ox    TRErOSITIOXS. 


§  501.  All  prepositions  govern  an  oblique  case.  If  a 
word  ceases  to  do  this,  it  ceases  to  be  a  preposition.  In 
the  first  of  tbe  two  following  sentences  tlic  word  up  is  a 
preposition,  in  the  second  an  adverb. 

1.  /  climbed  iip  the  tree. 

2.  /  climbed  tip. 

All  prepositions  in  English,  precede  the  noun  which 
they  govern.  /  climbed  up  the  tree,  never  /  climbed  the 
tree  up.  This  is  a  matter  not  of  government,  but  of  col- 
location. It  is  the  case  in  most  languages ;  and,  from  the 
frequency  of  its  occurrence,  the  icvva  j)re-position  (or  jn'e- 
fi.v)  has  originated.  Nevertheless,  it  is  by  no  means  a 
philological  necessit}^  In  many  languages  the  preposi- 
tions are  post-positive,  following  their  noun. 

§  502.  No  preposition,  in  the  present  English,  governs 
a  genitive  case.  This  remark  is  made,  because  expres- 
sions like  the  jjctrt  of  the  body  =  pars  corporis, — a  ])iece 
of  the  bread  =  ])ortio  paiiis,  make  it  appear  as  if  the  pre- 
position of  did  so.  The  true  expression  is,  that  the  pre- 
position of,  followed  by  an  objective  case  is  equivalent  in 
many  instances,  to  the  genitive  case  of  the  classical  lan- 
"•uasres. 


ON   CONJUNCTIONS.  357 


CHAPTER   XXVL 


ON    CONJUNCTIONS. 


§  503.  A  CONJUNCTION  is  a  part  of  speech  wlucli  con- 
nects propositions, — the  day  is  bright,  is  one  proposition. 
The  sun  shines,  is  another.  The  day  is  bright  because 
the  sun  shiiies  is  a  pair  of  propositions  connected  by  the 
conjunction,  because. 

From  this  it  follows,  that  whenever  there  is  a  conjunc- 
tion, there  are  two  subjects,  two  copulas,  and  two  predi- 
cates :  i.  e.,  two  propositions  in  all  their  parts. 

But  this  may  be  expressed  compendiously.  The  sun 
shines,  and  the  moon  shines  may  be  expressed  by  the  siin 
and  moon  shine. 

Nevertheless,  however  compendious  may  be  the  ex 
pression,  there  are  always  two  propositions  wherever  there 
is  one  conjunction.  A  part  of  speech  that  merely  com- 
bines two  words  is  a  preposition, — the  sun  along  with  the 
inoon  shines. 

It  is  highly  important  to  remember  that  conjunctions 
connect  propositions. 

It  is  also  highly  important  to  remember  that  many 
double  propositions  may  be  expressed  so  compendiously  as 
to  look  like  one.  When  this  takes  place,  and  any  ques- 
tion arises  as  to  the  construction,  they  must  be  exhibited 
in  their  fully  expanded  form,  i.  e.,  the  second  subject,  the 
second  predicate,  and  the  second  copula  must  be  supphed. 
This  can  always  be  done  from  the  first   proposition, — 


358  ON   CONJUNCTIONS. 

he  likes  yon  heller  than  me— he  likes  yon  belter  than 
he  likes  tne.  The  compendious  expression  of  the  second 
proposition  is  the  first  point  of  note  in  the  syntax  of  con- 
junctions. 

§  504.  The -second  point  in  the  syntax  of  conjunctions 
is  the  fact  of  their  great  convertibility.  Most  conjunc- 
tions have  been  developed  out  of  some  other  part  of 
speech. 

The  conjunction  of  comparison,  than^  is  derived  from 
the  adverb  of  time,  then :  "which  is  derived  from  the  accu- 
sative singular  of  the  demonstrative  pronoun. 

The  conjunction,  that^  is  derived  also  from  a  demon- 
strative pronoun. 

The  conjunction,  therefore,  is  a  demonstrative  pronoun 
-f  a  preposition. 

The  conjunction,  because,  is  a  substantive  governed  by 
a  preposition. 

One  and  the  same  word,  in  one  and  the  same  sen 
tcnce,  may  be  a  conjunction  or  preposition,  as  the  case? 
may  be. 

All  Jied  but  John. — If  this  mean  all  jled  except  John, 
the  word  but  is  a  preposition,  the  word  John  is  an  accu- 
sative case,  and  the  proposition  is  single.  If  instead  of 
John,  we  had  a  personal  pronoun,  we  should  say  all  Jied 
hut  him. 

All  Jied  hut  John. — If  this  mean  all  jled  but  John 
did  not  Jly,  the  word  but  is  a  conjunction,  the  Avord  John 
is  a  nominative  case,  and  the  propositions  are  two  in  num- 
ber. If,  instead  of  John,  we  had  a  personal  pronoun,  we 
should  say,  all  Jled  hut  he. 

From  the  fact  of  the  great  convertibility  of  conjunc- 
tions it  is  often  necessary  to  determine  whether  a  word 
be  a  conjunction  or  not.  IJ  it  be  a  conjunction,  it  cannot 
govern  a  case.     If  it  govern  a  case  it  is  no  conjunction 


ON   CONJUNCTIONS.  859 

bid  a  preposition.  A  conjunction  cannot  govern  a  case, 
for  tlie  following  reasons, — the  word  that  follows  it  tmist 
be  the  subject  of  the  second  proposition,  and  as  such,  a 
nominative  case. 

h  505.  The  third  point  to  determine  in  the  syntax  of 
conjunctions  is  the  certainty  or  uncertainty  in  the  mind  of 
the  speaker  as  to  the  facts  expressed  by  the  propositions 
which  they  serve  to  connect. 

1.  Each  proposition  may  contain  a  certain,  definite, 
absolute  fact — the  day  is  clear  because  the  sun  shines. 
Here  there  is  neither  doubt  nor  contingency  of  either  the 
day  being"  clear,  or  of  the  sun  shitiing: 

Of  two  propositions  one  may  be  the  condition  of  the 
other — the  day  will  be  clear  if  the  sun  shine.  Here,  al- 
though it  is  certain  that  if  the  sun  shine  the  day  will  be 
clear,  there  is  no  certainty  of  the  sun  shining.  Of  the 
two  propositions  one  only  embodies  a  certain  fact,  and  that 
is  certain  only  conditionally. 

Now  an  action,  wherem  there  enters  any  notion  of  un- 
certainty, or  indcfinitude,  and  is  at  the  same  time  connect- 
ed with  another  action,  is  expressed,  not  by  the  indicative 
mood,  but  by  the  subjunctive.  If  tlie  sun  shine  (not 
shines)  the  day  will  be  clear. 

Simple  uncertainty  will  not  constitute  a  subjunctive 
construction, — /  am,  perhaps,  in  the  wrong. 

Neither  will  simple  connection. — /  am  ivrong,  because 
you  are  right. 

But,  the  two  combined  constitute  the  construction  in 
question, — if  I  be  wrong,  you  are  rigid. 

Now,  a  conjunction  that  connects  two  certain  proposi- 
tions may  be  said  to  govern  an  indicative  mood. 

And  a  conjunction  that  connects  an  uncertam  proposi- 
tion with  a  certain  one,  may  be  said  to  govern  a  subjunc- 
tive mood. 


360  ox  cox  JUNCTIONS. 

The  government  of  mood  is  the  only  form  of  govern- 
ment of  which  co7}jimctions  are  capable. 

§  506.  Previous  to  the  question  of  the  government 
of  conjunctions  in  the  way  of  mood,  it  is  necessary  to 
notice  certain  points  of  agreement  hetween  them  and 
the  relative  pi'onouns ;  inasmuch  as,  in  many  cases, 
the  relative  pronoun  exerts  the  same  government,  in 
the  way  of  determining  the  mood  of  the  verb,  as  the  con- 
junction. 

Between  the  relative  pronouns  and  conjunctions  in 
general  there  is  this  point  of  connection, — both  join 
propositions.  Wherever  there  is  a  relative,  there  is 
a  second  proposition.  So  there  is  wherever  there  is  a 
conjunction. 

Between  certain  relative  pronoims  and  those  particular 
conjunctions  that  govern  a  subjunctive  mood  there  is  also 
a  point  of  connection.  Both  suggest  an  element  of  un- 
certainty or  indefinitude.  This  the  relative  pronouns  do, 
through  the  logical  elements  common  to  them  and  to  the 
intcrrogatives :  these  latter  essentially  suggesting  the 
idea  of  doubt.  "Wherever  the  person,  or  thing,  connected 
with  an  action,  and  expressed  by  a  relative  is  indefinite, 
there  is  room  for  the  use  of  a  subjunctive,  mood.  Thus — 
"he  that  troubled  you  shall  bear  his  judgment,  whoso- 
ever he  heP 

§  507.  By  considering  the  nature  of  such  words  as 
loJien,  their  origin  as  relatives  on  the  one  hand,  and  their 
conjunctional  character  on  the  other  hand,  we  are  pre- 
pared for  finding  a  relative  element  in  words  like  till, 
until,  before,  as  long  as,  &,c.  These  can  all  be  expanded 
into  expressions  like  laitil  the  time  when,  during  the  time 
when,  &c.  Hence,  in  an  expression  like  seek  out  his 
wickedness  till  thou  find  (not  findest)  none,  the  principle 


ON   CONJUNCTIONS.  361 

of  the  construction  is  nearly  the  same  as  in  ho  that  trou- 
bled you,  &c.,  or  vice  versa* 

§  508.  In  most  conditional  expressions  the  subjunctive 
mood  should  follow  the  conjunction.  All  the  following  ex- 
pressions are  conditional. 

1.  Except  I  he  by  Silvia  in  the  niglit, 
There  is  no  music  iii  the  nightingah?. 

Shakspeakk. 
2.  Let  113  go  and  sacrifice  to  the  Lord  onr  God,  kst  he  fall  upon 
with  pestilence. — Old  2'cstament. 

3. Revenge  back  on  itself  recoils. 

Let  it.     I  reck  not,  so  it  light  well  aimed. 

J.    MlI.TON. 

4.  If  this  be  the  case. 

5.  Although  my  house  be  not  so  with  God. — Old  Testament. 

6.  He  shall  not  eat  of  the  holy  thing  unless  he  wash  his  flesh  with 
water. —  Old  Testament. 

Expressions  like  except  and  unless  are  equally  condi- 
tional Avith  words  like  if  and  j)'fovidecl  that,  since  they  are 
equivalent  to  if — not. 

Expressions  like  though  and  although  are  peculiar. 
They  join  propositions,  of  which  the  one  is  a  primci  facie 
reason  against  the  existence  of  the  other  :  and  this  is  the 
conditional  element.  In  the  sentence,  if  the  children  be  so 
badly  brought-up,  they  are  not  to  be  trusted,  the  bad 
bringing-up  is  the  reason  for  their  being  unfit  to  be 
trusted  ;  and,  as  far  as  the  expression  is  concerned,  is  ad- 
tnitted  to  be  so.  The  only  uncertainty  lies  in  the  question 
us  to  the  degree  of  the  badness  of  the  education.  The  in- 
ference from  it  is  unequivocal. 

*  Notwithstanding  the  extent  to  which  a  relative  may  take  the 
appearance  of  a  conjunction,  there  is  always  one  unequivocal  method  of 
deciding  its  true  nature.  Tlie  relative  is  always  a  part  of  the  second  pro- 
position.    A  conjunction  is  7io  part  of  cither. 

17 


3G2  ox  COXJ UNCTIONS. 

But  if,  instead  of  saying  if,  we  say  although,  and  omit 
the  word  7iot,  so  tliat  the  sentence  run  although  the  chil- 
dren he  so  badly  hrougJit-np  they  arc  to  he  trusted,  avc  do 
two  things :  we  inilicatc  the  n;oneral  rchition  of  cause  and 
effect  that  exists  between  had  hringing-tip  and  unfitness 
for  heing  trusted,  but  Ave  also,  at  the  same  time,  take  an 
exception  to  it  in  the  particular  instance  before  us. 
These  remarks  have  been  made  for  the  sake  of  showing 
the  extent  to  which  words  like  though,  &c.,  arc  condi- 
tional. 

It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  conjunctions, 
like  the  ones  latel}^  quoted,  do  not  govern  subjunctive 
moods  because  they  are  conditional,  but  because,  in  the 
particular  condition  Avhich  they  accompany,  there  is  an 
element  of  uncertainty. 

§  509.  This  introduces  a  fresh  question.  Conditional 
conjunctions  are  of  two  sorts  : — 

1.  Those  which  express  a  condition  as  an  actual  fact, 
and  one  admitted  as  such  by  the  speaker. 

2.  Those  Avhich  express  a  condition  as  a  possible  fact, 
and  one  which  the  speaker  either  does  not  admit,  or  admits 
only  in  a  qualified  manner. 

Since  the  children  are  so  hadly  hrougJit-up,  &c. — This 
is  an  instance  of  the  first  construction.  The  speaker 
admits  as  an  actual  fiict  the  had  hringing-up  of  the 
children. 

If  the  children  be  so  hadly  hrought-up,  &c. — This  is 
an  instance  of  the  second  construction.  The  speaker 
admits  as  a  possible  (perhaps,  as  a  probable)  fact  the  had 
brinrring-itp  of  the  children :  but  he  does  not  adopt  it  as 
i;n  indubitable  one. 

§  510.  NoAY,  if  every  conjunction  had  a  fixed  unvari 
able  meaning,  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  determining 
whether  a  condition  was  absolute,  and  beyond  doubt,  or 


ox  coxjuxcTioxs.  36S 

possible,    anil   liable    to    doubt.      But   such   is   not   the 
case. 

AUJinugh  may  precede  a  proposition  wliicli  is  admitted 
as  -well  as  one  ■vvliich  is  doubted. 

a.  Although  the  children  are,  <tc. 

b.  Although  the  children  be,  &c. 

If,  too,  may  precede  propositions  wherein  there  is  no 
<loubt  "whatever  implied :  in  other  words  it  may  be  used 
instead  oi  since. 

In  some  languages  this  interchange  goes  farther  than 
in  others  ;  in  the  Greek,  for  instance,  such  is  the  case  with 
el,  to  a  very  great  extent  indeed. 

Hence  we  must  look  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence 
in  general,  rather  than  to  the  pax'ticular  conjunction 
used. 

It  is  a  philological  fact  that  if  may  stand  instead  of 
since. 

It  is  also  a  philological  fact  that  when  it  d(5es  so  it 
should  be  followed  by  the  indicative  mood. 

This  is  written  in  the  way  of  illustration.  "What 
applies  to  if  applies  to  other  conjunctions  as  well, 

§  511.  As  a  point  of  practice,  the  following  method  of 
determining  the  amount  of  doubt  expressed  in  a  condi- 
tional proposition  is  useful : — 

Insert,  immediately  after  the  conjunction,  one  of  the 
two  following  phrases, — (1.)  as  is  the  case  ;  (2.)  as  viay 
or  may  not  he  the  case.  By  ascertaining  which  of  these 
two  supplements  expresses  the  meaning  of  the  speaker, 
we  ascertain  the  mood  of  the  verb  which  follows. 

When  the  first  formula  is  the  one  required,  there  is  no 
element  of  doubt,  and  the  verb  should  be  in  the  indica- 
tive mood.  If  {as  is  the  case),  he  is  ,:gone,  I  must  follow 
him. 


SG-l  ox   CONJUNCTIONS. 

When  the  second  formula  is  the  one  rcquu'ed,  there  is 
an  element  of  doubt,  and  the  verb  should  be  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood.  If  {as  onay  or  may  not  be  the  case)  he 
be  gone,  1  must  follow  him. 

§  512,  The  use  of  the  word  iJial  in  expressions  like  I 
eat  that  I  may  live,  &.C.,  is  a  modification  of  the  subjunc- 
tive construction,  that  is  conveniently  called  potential. 
It  denotes  that  one  act  is  done  for  the  sake  of  supplying 
the  power  or  opportunity  for  the  performance  of  another. 

The  most  important  point  connected  -with  the  powers 
of  that  is  the  so-called  succession  of  tenses. 

§  513.  The  succession  of  tenses. — Whenever  the  con- 
junction that  expresses  intention,  and  consequently  con- 
nects two  verbs,  the  second  of  which  takes  place  after  the 
first,  the  verbs  in  question  must  be  in  the  same  tense. 

I  do  this  thai  1 7na)/  gain  by  it. 
I  did  this  that  I  nii/jht  gain  by  it. 

In  the  Greek  language  this  is  expressed  by  a  differ- 
ence of  mood ;  the  subjunctive  being  the  construction 
equivalent  to  7nay  the  optative  to  might.  The  Latin 
idiom  coincides  with  the  English. 

A  little  consideration  will  show  that  this  rule  is  abso- 
lute. For  a  man  to  he  doing  one  action  (in  present  time) 
in  order  that  some  other  action  may  folloio  it  (in  past 
time)  is  to  reverse  the  order  of  cause  and  effect.  To  do 
anything  in  a.  d.  1851,  that  something  may  result  from  it 
in  1850  is  a  contradiction  ;  and  so  it  is  to  say  /  do  this 
that  /  might  gain  by  it. 

The  reasons  against  the  converse  construction  are 
nearly,  if  not  equally  cogent.  To  have  done  anything  at 
any  previous  time  in  order  that  a  present  effect  may  fol- 
low, is,  ipso  facto,  to  convert  a  past  act  into  a  present  one, 
or,  to  speak  in  the  language  of  the  grammarian^  to  convert 


o:n  coNJUxcTioxs.  365 

an  aorist  into  a  perfect.  To  say  /  did  /his  tliat  /  inui/ 
gain  by  it,  is  to  make,  by  tlic  veiy  effect  of  the  expres- 
sion, either  nutij  equivalent  to  miglit,  or  did  equivalent  to 
have  done. 

/ilid  th(S  tliat  /might  (jaht. 

1  li;ive  tkiiic  litis  tliat  1  may  gain. 

§  514.  Disjunctives. — Disjunctives  [or,  nor)  arc  of  two 
sorts,  real  and  nominal. 

A  king-  or  qnecn  alicays  rules  in  England.  Here  the 
disjunction  is  real ;  king  or  queen  being  different  names' 
for  different  objects.  In  all  I'cal  disjunctions  the  inference 
is,  that  if  one  out  of  two  (or  more)  individuals  (or  classes) 
do  not  perform  a  certain  action,  the  other  does. 

A  sovereign  or  suprc7ne  j-ider  always  rules  in  Eng- 
land. Here  the  disjunction  is  nominal ;  sovereign  and 
supreme  governor  being  different  names  for  the  same 
object.  In  all  nominal  disjunctives  the  inference  is,  that 
if  an  agent  (or  agents)  do  not  perform  a  certain  action 
under  one  name,  he  does  (or  they  do)  it  under  another. 

Nominal  disjunctives  are  called  by  Harris  5?fidisjunc- 
tives. 

In  the  English  language  there  is  no  separate  word  to 
distinguish  the  nominal  from  the  real  disjunctive.  In 
Latin,  vel  is  considered  by  Harris  to  be  disjunctive,  sive 
subdisjunctive.  As  a  periphrasis,  the  combination  in 
other  words  is  subdisjunctive. 

Both  nominal  and  real  disjunctives  agree  in  this, — 
whatever  may  be  the  number  of  nouns  which  they  connect, 
the  construction  of  the  verb  is  the  same  as  if  there  were 
but  one — Henry,  or  John,  or  Thomas,  ivalks  (not  walk) ; 
the  sun,  or  solar  luminary,  shines  (not  shine).  The  dis- 
junctive isolates  the  sul)ject,  however  much  it  may  be 
placed  in  juxtaposition  with  other  nouns. 


3GG  SYNTAX  OF  THE   NEGATIVE. 


CIIAFIER   XXVII. 

THE    SYNTAX    OF    TIIK    NEGATIVE. 

§  515.  When  tlic  verb  is  in  the  infinitive  mood,  the 
negative  precedes  it. — Not  to  advaiice  is  to  retreat. 

"When  the  verb  is  not  in  the  infinitive  mood,  the 
negative  follows  it. — He  advanced  not.     I  cannot. 

This  rule  is  absolute.  It  only  seems  to  precede  the 
verb  in  such  expressions  as  /  do  not  advaiice,  I  cannot 
advance,  I  have  not  advanced,  &c.  However,  the  words 
do,  can^  and  have,  are  no  infinitives  ;  and  it  consequently 
follows  them.  The  word  advance  is  an  infinitive,  and  it 
consequently  precedes  it.  WalHs's  rule  makes  an  equiva- 
lent statement,  although  difierently.  "  Adverbium  ne- 
gandi  not  (non)  verbo  postponitur  (nempe  auxiliari 
primo  si  adsit ;  aut  si  non  adsit  auxiliare,  verbo  prin- 
cipali) :  aliis  tamcn  orationis  partibus  prajfigi  solct." — P. 
113. 

That  the  negative  is  rarely  used,  except  with  an  aux- 
iliary, in  other  words,  that  the  presence  of  a  negative 
converts  a  simple  form  like  it  bur  net  h  not  into  the  circum- 
locution it  does  not  burn,  is  a  fact  in  the  practice  of  the 
English  language.  The  syntax  is  the  same  in  either  ex- 
pression. 

§  516.  What  may  be  called  the  distribution  of  the 
negative  is  pretty  regular  in  English.  Thus,  Avhen  the 
word  not  comes  between  an  indicative,  imperative,  or 
subjunctive    mood    and    an    infinitive    verb,    it    almost 


SYNTAX  OF  THE   NECxATIVK.  3G7 

always  is  tak(>n  ■with  tlic  Avonl  wliicli.  h  folloios — I  ciui  not 
eat  may  mean  citlicr  /  can — not  eat  {i.  e.,  I  can  abstain), 
or  /  can  not — cat  (/.  e.,  /  am  unable  to  eat) ;  but,  as 
stated  above,  it  almost  ahvays  has  the  latter  signification. 
But  not  always.  In  Byron's  "  Deformed  Transformed" 
we  find  the  following  lines  : — 

Clay !  not  dead  but  soulless, 

Though  no  mortal,  uiau  would  choose  thee, 

An  itiimortal  no  lera 

Deij^ns  not  to  rrfitse  thee. 

Here  not  lo  refuse  =  to  accept ;  and  is  probably  a  Gre- 
cism.     To  not  refuse  would,  perhaps,  be  better. 

The  next  expression  is  still  more  foreign  to  the  English 
idiom : — 

For  not  to  liave  buen  (Iiji])od  in  Letlie'.s  lako 
Could  save  the  son  of  Tliotis  from  to  die. 

Here  not  is  to  be  taken  with  could. 

h  517.  In  the  present  English,  two  negatives  make  an 
afiirmative.  /  have  not  not  seen  him  =  /  have  seen  him. 
In  Greek  this  was  not  the  case.  Duoi  aut  plurcs  nega- 
tive apud  Graicos  veJiementius  negant  is  a  well  known 
rule.  The  Anglo-Saxon  idiom  differed  from  the  English 
and  coincided  with  the  Greek.  The  French  negative  is 
only  apparently  doul)le ;  words  like  point,  jxis,  mean  not 
not,  but  at  all.  .To  ne  j>arlc  jfas  =  /  not  speak  at  (dl.  not 
/  not  speak  no. 

§  olS.  Questions  of  appeal.— A\\  questions  imply 
want  of  information;  want  of  information  may  then  imply 
doubt ;  doubt,  perplexity ;  and  perplexity  the  absence  of 
an  alternative.  In  this  Avay,  what  are  called,  by  INIr.  Ar- 
n<d«l,*  (pKstions  of  appeal,  are,  practically  speaking,  nog- 

*  "Latin  Prose  Coniijositiim,''  p.  123. 


8G8  SYNTAX  OF  THE  NEGATIVE. 

ativcs.  Whai  should  I  do?  "when  asked  in  extreme  per- 
plexity, means  that  nothing  can  •well  be  done.  In  the  fol- 
lowing passage  we  have  the  presence  of  a  question  instead 
of  a  negative  : — 

Or  hcar'st  thou  {cluis,  L;it.)  i-athor  pure  ethereal  stream, 
Whose  fountain  who  [no  one)  shall  tell  ? 

Paradise  Lost. 


THE  CASE  ABSOLUTE.  3G9 


CHAPTER  XXVIII. 


ON    TIIH    CASK    AHSOLUTE. 


§  519.  Broadly  speaking,  all  adverbial  constructions 
are  absolute.  The  term,  however,  is  conveniently  limited 
to  a  particular  combination  of  the  noun,  verb,  and  parti- 
ciple. When  two  actions  arc  connected  with  each  other, 
either  by  the  fact  of  their  simultaneous  occurrence,  or  as 
cause  and  effect,  they  may  be  expressed  within  the  limits 
of  a  single  proposition,  by  expressing  the  one  by  means  of 
a  verb,  and  the  other  by  means  of  a  noun  and  participle 
agreeing  Avlth  each  other.  77/e  door  hchig  open,  the  horse 
was  stolen. 

Considering  the  nature  of  the  connection  between  the 
two  actions,  we  find  good  grounds  for  expecting  a  j)riori 
that  the  participle  will  be  in  the  instrumental  case,  when 
such  exists  in  the  language  :  and  when  not,  in  some  case 
allied  to  it,  i.  e.,  the  ablative  or  dative. 

In  Latin  the  ablative  is  the  case  that  is  used  absolute- 
ly.    Sole  orto,  claruit  dies. 

In  Anglo-Saxon  the  absolute  case  was  the  dative.  This 
is  logical. 

In  the  present  English,  however,  the  nominative  is  the 
absolute  case.  He  made  the  best  proverbs,  h'lin  alone  ex- 
cepted, is  an  expression  of  Tillotson's.  We  should  now 
write  he  alone  excepted.     The  present  mode  of  expression 


370  THE   CASE   ABSOLUTE. 

is  only  to  be  justified  by  considering  tlie  nominative  form 
to  be  a  dative  one,  just  as  in  the  expression  you  are  here, 
the  word  you,  althougli  an  accusative,  is  considered  as  a 
nominative.  A  real  nominative  absolute  is  as  illogical  as 
a  real  accusative  case  governing  a  verb. 


PART  VI. 

PROSODY. 

§  520.  The  word  Prosody  is  .Icrlved  from  a  Greek 
word  (prosodia)  signifying  accent.  It  is  used  by  Latin 
and  English  grammarians  in  a  wider  sense,  and  includes 
not  only  the  doctrines  of  accent  and  quantity,  but  also  the 
laws  of  metre  and  versification. 

§  521.  Observe  the  accents  in  the  folloAving  lines : — 

Then  f;lre  thee  ■well,  mine  uwn  clear  love, 

The  "world  hath  now  for  us 
No  greater  grief,  no  pain  above 

Tlie  pain  of  parting  thus. 

Moore 

Here  the  syllables  accented  are  the  2ud,  4th,  Gth,  8th, 
10th,  12th,  14th,  16th,  18th,  20th,  22nd,  24th,  26th,  28th; 
that  is,  every  other  syllable. — Again, 

At  the  close  of  the  day,  Avhen  the  hamlet  is  still, 
And  the  mortals  the  sweets  of  forgetfulness  prove, 

And  when  nought  but  the  torrent  is  heard  on  the  lull. 

And  there's  nought  but  the  nightingale's  song  in  the  grove. 

Beattie. 

Here  the  syllables  accented  are  the  3rd,  6th,  9th,  12th, 
15th,  18th,  21st,  24tb,  27th,  30th,  33rd,  36th,  39th,  42nd, 
4oth,  48th ;  that  is,  every  third  syllable. 

§  522.  Metre  is  a  general  term  for  the   recurrence 


o  i  2  PROSODY. 

ui/hi/i  ccrlain  intervals  of  syllables  similarly  affected, 
The  syllables  that  have  just  been  numbered  are  similarly 
affected,  being  similarly  accented.  Accent  is  not  the  only 
quality  of  a  S3-llable,  "which  by  returning  at  regular  inter- 
vals can  constitute  metre.  It  is  the  one,  however,  upon 
■which  English  metre  depends.  English  metre  essentially 
consists  in  the  regular  recurrence  of  syllables  similarly 
accejited. 

Abbot. — Ami  vliy'  not  live  and  act  with  other  m^n  ? 

Manfred. — Because  my  niturc  was  averse  from  life ; 

And  yet  not  cruel,  for  I  would  not  make. 

But  find  a  desolation  : — like  the  wind, 

The  red-hot  br&ith  of  the  most  lone  simoom, 

Which  dwells  but  in  the  desert,  dnd  sweeps  o'er 

The  barren  sands  which  bear  no  shrubs  to  blast. 

And  revels  6'cr  their  wild  and  arid  waves, 

And  se6keth  not  so  that  it  is  not  sought, 

But  b6ing  met  is  deadly :  such  hath  been 

The  path  of  my'  existence.  Byron. 

§  523.  Measures. — For  every  accented  syllable  in  the 
following  line,  write  the  letter  a,  and  for  every  unaccented 
one,  the  letter  x,  so  that  a  may  stand  for  an  accent,  x  for 
the  absence  of  one — 

The  way  was  long,  the  wind  was  c61d. 

Scott. 

or  expressed  symbolically 

X  a  X  a  X  a  x  a, 
where  x  coincides  with  the,  a  with  way,  &c. 

§  524.  Determine  the  length  of  the  line  in  question. 
— It  is  plain  that  this  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  We 
may  either  measure  by  the  syllables,  and  say  that  the 
line  consists  of  eight  syllables ;  or  by  the  accents,  and 
say  that  it  consists  of  four  accents.  In  this  latter  case 
wo    take   the   accented   syllable    with    its    corresponding 


PROSODY.  o73 

unaccented  one,  and,  grouping  the  two  together,  deal  "with 
the  pair  at  once.  Now,  a  group  of  sjdlables  thus  taken 
together  is  called  a  measure.  In  the  line  in  question  the 
way  {x  a)  is  one  measure,  was  long'  {.v  a)  another,  and 
so  on  throughout ;  the  line  itself  consisting  of  four  mea- 
sures. 

j  52-3.  Trisyllabic  incasiircs. — The  number  of  mea- 
sures consisting  of  two  syllables,  or  dissjdlabic  measures, 
is  necessarily  limited  to  tAvo,  expressed  a  x  and  x  a 
respectively.  Eut  beyond  these  there  are  in  the  En- 
glish language  measures  of  three  syllables,  or  trisyllabic 
measures.  The  mimber  of  these  is  necessarily  limited  to 
three. 

The  first  of  these  is  exhibited  in  the  word  merrily 
{a  X  x). 

ilerrily,  merrily  shall  I  live  now. 

U'nder  the  blossom  that  hangs  on  the  bough. 

Shakspeare. 

The  second  is  exhibited  by  the  word  disable 
{x  a  x). 

But  vainly  thou  warrcst. 

For  this  is  alone  in 
Thy  power  to  declare, 
That  in  the  dim  forest 
Thou  heard'st  a  low  moaning, 
And  saw'st  a  bright  lady  surpassingly  fair. 

Coleridge. 

§  526.  The  third  is  exhibited  by  the  word  cavaliei 
{x  X  a). 

Tliere's  a  beauty  for  ever  unfadiugly  bright, 

Like  the  long  ruddy  le'ipse  of  a  summer-day's  night. 

3I00EE. 

When  grouped  together  according  to  certain  rules, 
measures   form  lines  and  verses ;   and  lines  and  verses, 


o  t  -i  PROSODY. 

regularly    arranged,    constitute    couplets,    triplets,    and 
stanzas,  (fee. 

§  527.  The  expression  of  measures,  lines,  <fcc.,  by  such 
symbols  us  a  x,  x  a,  <fec.,  is  Qjietrical  notation. 

§  528.  Rhyme. — We  can  have  English  verse  without 
rhyme.  We  cannot  have  English  verse  -without  accent. 
Hence  accent  i^  an  essential ;  rhyme  an  accessory  to 
metre. 

§  529.  Analysis  of  a  ])i\ir  of  rliyming  syllables. — 
Let  the  syllables  told  and  bold  be  taken  to  pieces,  and  let 
the  separate  parts  of  each  be  compared.  Viewed  in 
reference  to  metre,  they  consist  of  three  parts  or  ele- 
ments :  1.  the  vowel  (o) ;  2.  the  part  preceding  the  vowel 
{t  and  b  respectively) ;  3.  the  parts  following  the  vowel 
{Id).  Now  the  vowel  (o)  and  the  parts  following  the 
vowel  {Id)  are  alike  in  both  words  {old) ;  but  the  part  pre- 
ceding the  vowel  is  different  in  the  different  words  {told, 
bold).  This  difference  between  the  parts  preceding  the 
vovrels  is  essential ;  since,  if  it  were  not  for  this,  the  two 
words  would  be  identical,  or  rather  there  would  be  but  one 
word  altogether.  This  is  the  case  Avith  /  and  eye. 
Sound  for  sound  (although  different  in  spelling)  the  tAvo 
Avords  are  identical  and,  consequently,  the  rhyme  is 
faulty. 

Again — compared  Avith  the  words  bold  and  told,  the 
Avords  teeth  and  breeze  have  two  of  the  elements  neces- 
sary to  constitute  a  rhyme.  The  A'owels  are  alike  {ec), 
AA'hilst  the  parts  preceding  the  vowels  are  different  {br 
and  t) ;  and,  as  far  as  these  two  matters  are  concerned, 
tlie  rhyme  is  a  good  one,  tee  and  brec.  Notwithstand- 
ing this,  there  is  anything  rather  than  a  rhyme ;  since 
the  parts  following  the  voAvel  {th  and  ze)  instead  of 
agreeing,  differ.     Breathe  and  beneath  are  in  the  same 


PROSODY.  375 

predicament,  because  the  th  is  not  sounded  alike  in  the 
two  words. 

Again — the  words  feci  and  mill  constitute  only  a 
false  and  imperfect  rhyme.  Sound  for  sound,  the  let- 
ters f  ami  111  (the  parts  preceding  the  vowel)  are  dif- 
ferent This  is  as  it  should  be.  Also,  sound  for 
sound,  I  and  II  (the  parts  following  the  vowel)  arc 
identical ;  and  this  is  as  it  should  be  also  :  but  cc  and  i 
(the  vowels)  are  different,  and  this  difference  spoils  tlie 
rhyme.  No7ie  and  oicn  are  in  the  same  predicament ; 
since  one  o  is  sounded  as  o  in  note,  and  the  other  as  the  u 
in  but. 

From  what  has  gone  before  we  g.et  the  notion  of  true 
and  perfect  rhymes  as  opposed  to  false  and  imperfect  ones. 
For  two  (or  more)  words  to  rhyme  to  each  other,  it  is  ne- 
cessary 

a.  That  the  voAvel  be  the  same  in  both. 

h.  That  the  parts  following  the  vowel  be  the  same. 

c.  That  the  parts  preceding  the  vowel  be  different. 

Beyond  this  it  is  necessary  that  the  syllables,  to  form 
a  full  and  perfect  rhyme,  should  be  accented  syllables. 
Skij  and  lie  form  good  rhymes,  but  sky  and  merri/y  bad 
ones,  and  merrily  and  silly  worse.  Lines  like  the  second 
and  fourth  of  the  following  stanSia  are  slightly  exception- 
able on  this  score  :  indeed,  many  readers  sacrifice  the 
accent  in  the  word  merrily  to  the  rhyme,  and  pronounce 
it  merrily . 

The  witch  she  held  the  hair  in  lior  hand, 

The  r^d  flame  hli'ized  higli ; 
And  round  about  the  culdron  stout, 

They  danced  right  meiri/y'. 

KiuKE   White. 

§  530.  In  matters  of  rhyme  the  letter  A  counts  as 
nothing.      High    and    /,   hair   and   air,   are    imperfect 


376  PROSODY. 

rhymes,  because  A  (being  no  articulate  sound)  counts  as 
n( (tiling,  and  so  the  parts  before  the  voAvel  i  and  a  arc  not 
different  (as  they  ought  to  be)  but  identical. 

AVliose  gCDorous  cbildrcu  narrow'd  not  their  lioarts 
With  commerce,  giv'u  alone  to  arms  and  arts. 

Bvuox. 

S  531.  Words  -where  the  letters  coincide,  but  the 
sounds  differ,  are  only  rhymes  to  the  eye.  BreaUie  and 
beneath  are  both  in  this  predicament ;  so  also  are  cease 
and  ease  {caze). 

In  tlie  fat  age  of  pleasure,  wealth,  and  ease, 

Sprang  the  rank  weed,  and  thrived  with  lajge  increase. 

§  532.  If  the  sounds  coincide,  the  difference  of  the 
letters  is  unimportant. 

Bold  in  the  practice  of  mistaken  rules, 
Prescribe,  apply,  and  call  their  masters  fools. 
They  talk  of  princijiles,  but  notions  prize, 
And  all  to  one  loved  folly  sacrifice. 

POFI; 

§  533.  Single  rhymes. — An  accented  syllable  stand- 
ing by  itself,  and  coming  under  the  conditions  given  above, 
constitutes  a  single  rhyme. 

'Tis  hard  to  say  if  greater  want  of  skill 
Appear  in  writing  or  in  judging  ill ; 
But  of  the  two,  less  dangerous  is  the  olfence 
To  tire  the  patience  than  mislead  the  sense. 
Some  few  iu  that,  but  thousands  orr  in  this ; 
Ten  censure  wrong,  for  one  that  writes  amiss, 

Poi'E. 

§  534.  Double  rhymes. — An  accented  syllabic  follow- 
ed by  an  unaccented  one,  and  coming  under  the  conditions 
given  above,  constitutes  a  double  rhyme. 


PROSODY.  377 

Tlie  meeting  points  the  sacred  hair  disscyer 
From  lier  fair  head  for  ever  and  for  ever. 

Von-. 

Prove  and  explain  a  thing  till  all  men  douht  it, 
And  -^-rite  about  it,  Goddess,  and  about  it. 

Pope. 

§  535.  An  accented  syllabic  followed  by  two  unaccent- 
ed ones,  and  coming  under  the  conditions  given  above,  con- 
stitutes a  treble  rhyme. 

Eeware  that  its  fatal  ascendancy 

Do  not  tempt  thee  to  mope  and  repine ; 
AVith  a  humble  and  hopeful  A&pindency 

Still  await  the  good  pleasure  divine. 
Success  hi  a  higher  hcdlilmlc, 

Is  the  end  of  what's  under  the  Pole ; 
A  philosopher  takes  it  with  c/rdtitude, 

And  believes  it  the  best  on  the  whole. 

BlROX. 

§  536.  Metres  wliere  there  is  no  rhyme  arc  called 
blank  metres. 

Of  man's  first  disobedience  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world  and  all  our  woe, 
AVith  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  Heavenly  Muse  ? 

Milton. 

The  quality  of  mercy  is  not  strained. 

It  droppeth  as  the  gentle  (.]cw  from  heaven 

Upon  the  place  beneath ;  it  is  twice  bless'd, 

It  blesseth  him  that  gives,  and  him  that  takes 

Tis  mightiest  <#the  mighty,  it  becomes  ""    "^"^ 

The  throned  monarch  better  than  liis  crown. 

His  sceptre  shows  the  force  of  temporal  power, 

The  attribute  of  awe  and  majesty, 

Wherein  doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings: 


"Vw^ 


378  PKOSODY. 

But  morcy  is  above  lliis  scoptrcd  sway ; 

It  is  ciitlironcd  in  tlie  hearts  of  kings : 

It  is  aa  attribute  to  God  liiinself ; 

And  eartlily  power  doth  then  sliow  likcst  God's, 

Wlieu  mercy  seasons  justice. 

SlIAKSrEARE. 

§  53T.  Tlie  last  measure  in  a  line  or  verse  is  indijfer- 
cnt  as  to  its  length. — By  referring  to  tlio  section  upon 
single  rhymes,  avc  sliall  find  tliat  the  number  of  syllables 
is  just  double  the  number  of  accents  ;  that  is,  to  each 
accented  there  is  one  unaccented  syllable,  and  no  more. 
Hence,  -with  five  accents,  there  are  to  each  line  ten  sylla- 
bles. This  is  not  the  case  with  all  verses.  Some  rhymes 
are  double,  and  the  last  accented  syllable  has  two  unac- 
cented ones  to  follow  it.  Hence,  with  five  accents  there 
are  to  each  line  eleven  syllables.  Now  it  is  in  the  last_ 
measure  that  this  supernumerary  unaccented  syllable  ap- 
pears ;  and  it  is  a  general  rule,  that,  in  the  last  measure 
of  any  verse,  supernumerary  unaccented  syllables  can  be 
admitted  without  destroying  the  original  character  of  the 
measure. 

§  538.  See  the  verses  in  the  section  on  double 
rhymes.  Here  the  original  character  of  the  measure 
is  X  a  throughout,  until  we  get  to  the  words  dissever  and 
for  ever,  and  afterwards  to  i/ien  doilbt  it,  and  about  it. 
At  the  first  view  it  seems  proper  to  say  that  in  these 
last-mentioned  cases  x  a  is  converted  into  .^•  a  x.  A 
different  view,  however,  is  the  more  correct  one.  Dis- 
sever and  for  ever,  are  rather  x  a  v.ith  a  syllable  over. 
This  extra  syllable  may  be  expressed  by  the  sign 
^yhis  {-{-),  so  that  the  words  in  point  may  bo  expressed 
by  r  a  +,  rather  than  by  x  a  x.  It  is  very  clear  that  a 
measure  whereof  the  last  S3'llable  is  accented  (that  is^ 
measures  like  x  a.  iiresUme,  or  x  x  a,  cavalier),  can  only 


PROSODY.  370 

vary  from  llicir  orii^inal  character  on  tlic  side  of  excess ; 
that  is,  they  can  only  be  altered  by  the  addition  of  fresh 
syllables.  To  subtract  a  syllabic  from  such  feet  is  im- 
possible ;  since  it  is  only  the  last  syllable  that  is  capable 
of  beinn;  subtracted.  If  that  last  syllable,  however,  be  the 
accented  syllable  of  the  measure,  the  whole  measure  is 
annihilated.  Nothing  remains  but  the  unaccented  syl- 
lable preceding;  and  this,  as  no  measure  can  subsist  with- 
out an  accent,  must  be  counted  as  a  supernumerary  part 
of  the  preceding  measure. 

§  539.  With  the  measures  a  x,  a  x  x^  x  a  x,  the  case 
is  different.  Here  there  is  room  for  syllabic  or  syllables 
to  be  subtracted. 

Queuii  atid  hi'mtrcsji,  cliAsto  and  fair, 

Nuw  the  sun  is  laid  to  sleep,  ^W-^rv-'Vu4JL— 

Seated  in  thy  silver  chair, .-.       —^ 

St^ite  in  woutcd  sjil(Sa4e«^  keep.  ^  >       — 1''7 


Hesperus  invukcs  thy  light, 
Goddess,  «*EqtTTsiteiy  bright. 


7 

Bem  Joxson'. 


In  all  these  lines  the  last  measure  is  deficient  in  a  syl- 
lable, yet  the  deficiency  is  allowable,  because  each  mea- 
sure is  the  last  one  of  the  line.  The  formula  for  express- 
ing/atr,  sleep,  chair,  &c.  is  not  a,  but  rather  ax  followed 
by  the  7ninus  sign  (  — ),  or  a  x — . 

A  little  consideration  will  show  that  amongst  the 
English  measures,  x  a  and  x  x  a  naturally  form  single, 
a  X  and  x  a  x  double,  and  a  x  x  treble  rhymes. 

§  540.  The  chief  metres  in  English  are  of  the  formula 
x  a-  It  is  only  a  few  that  are  known  by  fixed  names. 
These  are  as  follows : — 

1.  Gaifs  stanza. — Lines  of  three  measures,  x  a,  with 
alternate  rhymes.  The  odd  (i.  e.  the  1st  and  ord)  rhymes 
double. 


380  riJosoDY. 

'Twas  wlicii  tlip,  seas  were  roaring 

With  hollow  bhists  of  wind, 
A  (laiiiscl  lay  doiihiring', 

All  on  a  roclc  reclined. 

2.  Cojnmon  octosyllnhics. — Four  measures,  x  a,  "with 
rhyme,  and  (unless  the  rhymes  be  double)  eight  syllables 
{ncto  si/llabce).^^'Bnt\QY^s  Iludibras,  Scott's  poems.  The 
Giaour,  and  other  poems  of  Lord  Byron. 

3.  Elegiac  oclosi/llabics. — Same  as  the  last,  except 
that  the  rhymes  are  regularly  alternate,  and  the  verses 
arranged  in  stanzas. 

And  on  her  lover's  arm  she  leant, 

And  round  her  waist  she  felt  it  fold. 
And  far  across  the  hills  they  went, 

In  that  new  world  which  now  is  old : 
Across  the  hills  and  far  away, 

Beyond  their  utmost  purple  rim, 
And  deep  into  the  dying  day 

The  happy  princess  follow'd  him. 

TKX.VVSO>t, 

4.  Octosyllabic  triplets. — Three  rhymes  in  succession. 
Generally  arranged  as  stanzas. 

I  blest  them,  and  they  wander'd  on; 
I  spoke,  but  answer  came  there  none : 
The  dull  and  bitter  voice  was  gone. 

t'*'    •  Tennysom. 

"A 

5.  Blank  verse. — Pivc  measures,  x  a,  without  rhyme. 
Paradise  Lost,  Young's  Night  Thoughts,  Cowper's 
Task. 

G.  Heroic  couplets.. — Five  measures,  x  a,  with  pairs  of 
rhymes.  Chaucer,  Denham,  Dryden,  Waller,  Pope,  Gold- 
smith, Cowpcr,  Byron,  Moore,  Shelley,  (fcc.  This  is  the 
common  metre  for  narrative,  didactic,  and  descriptive 
poetry. 


PROSODY.  381 

7.  Heroic  triplets. — Five  measures,  x  a.  Three 
rhymes  in  succession.  Arranged  in  stanzas.  This  metre 
is  sometimes  interposed  among  lieroic  couplets. 

8.  Elegiacs. — Five  measures,  x  a;  "with  regularly 
alternate  rhymes,  and  arranged  in  stanzas. 

The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day, 
The  lowing  herds  wind  slowly  o'er  the  lea, 

The  ploughman  homewards  plods  his  weary  way, 
And  leaves  the  word  to  darkness  and  to  me. 

Gray. 

9.  Rhymes  royal. — Seven  lines  of  heroics,  with  the 
last  two  rhymes  in  succession,  and  the  first  five  recurring 
at  intervals. 

This  Troilus,  iu  gift  of  curtesie, 

"With  hauk  on  hond,  and  with  a  huge  rout 
Of  knightes,  rode,  and  did  her  company, 

Passing  all  through  the  valley  far  about ; 

And  further  would  have  ridden  out  of  doubt. 
Full  faine  and  woe  was  him  to  gone  so  sone  ; 
But  turn  he  must,  and  it  was  eke  to  doen. 

Chaucer. 

This  metre  Avas  common  with  the  writers  of  the 
earlier  part  of  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  It  admits  of 
varieties  according  to  the  distribution  of  the  first  five 
rhymes. 

10.  Ottava  rima. — A  metre  with  an  Italian  name, 
and  borrowed  from  Italy,  where  it  is  used  generally  for 
narrative  poetry.  The  ^Slorgante  Maggiore  of  Pulci, 
the  Orlando  Innamorato  of  Bojardo,  the  Orlando  Furioso 
of  Ariosto,  the  Gierusalemme  Liberata  of  Tasso,  are  all 
wTitten  in  this  metre.  Besides  this,  the  two  chief  epics 
of  Spain  and  Portugal  respectively  (the  Auraucana 
and  the  Lusiados)  are  thus  composed.  Hence  it  is 
a   form    of    poetry   Avhich    is    Continental    rather    than 


382  PROSODY. 

English,  and  naturalized  ratlicr  than  indigenous.  The 
stanza  consists  of  eight  lines  of  heroics,  the  six  first 
rh3-Tning  alternately,  the  last  two  in  succession. 

Anivod  there,  a  prt)digious  noise  he  hears, 

"Wliich  suddenly  along  tlie  forest  spread  ; 
Whereat  from  out  his  quiver  he  prepares 

An  arrow  for  his  bow,  and  lifts  his  bead ; 
And,  lo !  a  monstrous  herd  of  swine  appears,  • 

And  onward  rushes  Mnth  tempestuous  tread. 
And  to  the  fountain's  brink  precisely  pours. 
So  that  the  giant's  join'd  by  all  the  boars. 

Morgante  Marjg'wrc  (Ln.  Byron's  Translation.) 

11.  Terza  rima. — Like  the  last,  borro-wcd  both  in 
name  and  nature  from  the  Italian,  and  scarcely  yet 
naturalized  in  England. 

The  Spirit  of  the  fervent  days  of  old, 

When  words  were  things  that  came  to  pass,  and  Thmijht 

Flash'd  o'er  the  futm-e,  bidding  men  buliold 
Their  childj-en's  children's  doom  already  brought 

Forth  from  the  abyss  of  Time  which  is  to  be. 

The  chaos  of  events  where  lie  half-wrought 
Shapes  that  must  undergo  mortaUty : 

What  tlie  great  seers  of  Israel  wore  within, 

That  Spirit  was  on  them  and  is  on  me : 
And  if,  Cassandra-like,  amidst  the  din 

Of  conflicts,  none  will  hear,  or  healing  heed 

This  voice  from  out  the  wilderness,  the  sin 
Be  theirs,  and  my  own  feelings  be  my  meed. 

The  only  guerdon  I  have  ever  known. 

12.  Alexandrines. — Six  measures,  x  a,  generally  (per- 
haps always)  with  rhyme.  The  name  is  said  to  be 
taken  from  the  fiict  that  early  romances  upon  the  deeds 
of  Alexander  of  INIacedon,  of  great  popularity,  were 
vritten  in  this  metre.     One  of  the  longest  poems  in  the 


PROSODY.  383 

English  language  is  in  tlic  Alexandrines,  viz.  Drayton's 
Polj-olbion,  quoted  above. 

13.  Spenserian  staiiza. — A  stanza  consisting  of  nine 
lines,  the  first  eight  heroics,  the  last  an  Alexandrine. 

It  luith  boon  tliroiigh  all  ages  ever  seen, 

Ti»at  with  the  ])i'izc  of  arms  and  chivalrie 
llie  prize  of  beauty  still  hath  joined  been, 

And  that  for  reason's  special  privitie ; 
Fur  either  doth  ou  other  much  rely. 

For  lie  nieseems  most  fit  the  fair  to  serve 
That  can  her  best  defend  from  villanie ; 

And  she  most  fit  liis  service  doth  deserve, 
Tliat  fairest  is,  and  from  her  faith  will  never  swerve. 

Sl'EXSER. 

Childe  Harold  and  other  important  poems  are  com- 
posed in  the  Spenserian  stanza. 

14.  Service  metre. — Couplets  of  seven  measures,  x  a. 
This  is  the  common  metre  of  the  Psalm  versions.  It 
is  also  called  common  measure,  or  long  measure.  In  this 
metre  there  is  always  a  pause  after  the  fourth  measure, 
tinil  many  grammarians  consider  that  ^Yith  that  pause  the 
line  ends.  According  to  this  view,  the  service  metre  does 
not  consist  of  t^Y0  long  lines  with  seven  measures  each ; 
but  of  four  short  ones,  with  four  and  three  measures  each 
alternately.  The  Psalm  versions  arc  printed  so  as  to  ex- 
hibit this  pause  or  break. 

Tlie  Lord  descended  from  above,  |  and  bow'd  the  heavens  most  high, 

And  underneath  his  feet  He  cast  |  the  darkness  of  the  sky. 

On  Cherubs  and  on  Seraphim  |  full  royally  He  rode, 

And  on  the  wings  of  mighty  winds  |  came  flying  all  abroad. 

Steiinhold  and  Hopkins. 

In  this  matter  the  following  distinction  is  convenient. 
"When  the  last  syllable  of  the  fourth  measure  {i.e.  the 
eighth  sj'llable  in  the  lino)  in  the  one  verse  rhyiyics  with 


384  PROSODY. 

the  corresponding  syllable  in  the  other,  the  long  verse 
should  be  looked  upon  as  broken  up  into  two  short  ones ; 
in  other  words,  the  couplets  should  be  dealt  with  as  a 
stanza.  Where  there  is  no  rhyme  except  at  the  seventh 
measure,  the  verse  should  remain  undivided.     Thus  : 

Turn,  gentle  .hermit  of  tlie  glen,  |  and  guide  thy  lonely  way 
To  where  yon  taper  clieers  the  vale  |  •«'itli  hosj^itable  ray — 

constitute  a  single  couplet  of  two  lines,  the  number  of 
rhymes  being  two.     But, 

Turn,  gentle  hermit  of  the  dale, 

And  guide  thy  lonely  way 
To  where  yon  taper  cheers  tlie  vale 

With  hospitable  ray — 

(Goldsmith) 

constitute  a  stanza  of  four  lines,  the  number  of  rhymes 
being  four. 

15.  Ballad  stanza. — Service  metre  broken  up  in  the 
way  just  indicated.  Goldsmith's  Edwin  and  Angelina, 
&c. 

IG.  Poulterer's  measure. — Alexandrines  and  service 
metre  alternately.  Found  in  the  poetry  of  Henry  the 
Eio-hth's  time. 


PART   VII. 

THE    DIALECTS    OF    THE    EXGLISU    LANGUAGE. 

§  541.  Certain  parts  of  England  are  named  as  if 
their  population  were  preeminently  Saxon  rather  than 
Angle  ;  viz.,  Wes-5ea:  ( ==  West  Saxons),  Es-sea:  ( =  East 
Saxons),  Sus-^ear  (=  South  Saxons),  and  Middle-se^:, 
(  =  ]\Iiddle  Saxons). 

Others  are  named  as  if  their  population  -were  pre- 
eminently Angle  rather  than  Saxon ;  thus,  the  counties 
of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk  once  constituted  the  kingdom  of  the 
East  Angles,  and  even  at  the  present  moment,  are  often 
spoken  of  as  Easi  Anglia. 

§  542.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  the  dialects  of  the  English 
lanf^uatre  do  not  coincide  with  the  distribution  of  these 
terms.  That  parts  of  the  Angle  differ  from  parts  of  the 
Saxon  districts  in  respect  to  the  character  of  their  pro- 
vincialisms is  true ;  but  it  is  by  no  means  evident  that 
they  differ  on  that  account. 

Thus,  that  the  dialect  of  Hampshire,  which  was  part 
of  Wes-5er,  should  differ  from  that  of  Norfolk,  which 
was  part  of  East  Anglia,  is  but  natural.  There  is  a 
great  space  of  country  between  them — a  fact  sufficient 
to  account  for  their  respective  characteristics,  without 
assuming  an  original  difference  of  population.  Between 
the  Saxons  of  Es-^cr  and  the  Anglians  of  Suffolk,  no  one 
has  professed  to  find  any  notable  difference. 
18 


8S6  DIALECTS   OF   ENGLISU   LANGUAGE. 

Ilencc,  no  division  of  the  English  dialects  into  those 
of  Saxoii  or  those  of  Angle  origin,  has  been  suc- 
cessful. 

Neither  have  any  peculiarities  in  the  dialect  of  Kent, 
or  the  Isle  of  "Wight,  verified  the  notion  of  the  population 
for  those  parts  having  been  originally  Juie. 

Nor  yet  has  any  portion  of  England  been  shown  by  the 
evidence  of  its  dialects,  to  have  been  Frisian. 

§  543.  Yet  the  solution  of  such  problems  is  one  of  the 
great  objects  of  the  study  of  provincial  modes  of  speech. 

§  544.  That  Jute  characteristics  will  be  sought  in  vain 
is  the  inference  from  §§  7 — 13. 

That  differential  points  between  the  Angles  and  Saxons 
will  be  sought  in  vain  is  also  probable. 

On  the  other  hand,  differential  points  between  the 
Frisians  and  Angles  are  likely  to  be  discovered. 

§  545.  The  traces  of  the  Danes,  or  Northmen,  are 
distinct;  the  following  forms  of  local  names  being 
prifna  facie  evidence  (at  least)  of  Danish  or  Norse 
occupancy. 

a.  The  combination  S7c-,  rather  than  the  sound  of  >S7i-, 
in  such  names  as  Skip-ton,  rather  than  Ship-ton. 

b.  The  combination  Ca-,  rather  than  Ch-,  in  such 
names  as  Carl-ton  rather  than  Cliarl-ton. 

c.  The  termination  -by  {  =  town*jf. habitation,  occu- 
pancy,) rather  than  -ton,  as  K'&h-by,  Demble-6y,  Spills-&y, 
Grims-iy,  &c. 

d.  The  form  Kirk  rather  than  Church. 

e.  The  form  Orin  rather  than  Worm,  as  in  Orms- 
head. 

In  Orms-hirk  and  Kir-by  wc  have  a  combination  of 
Danish  characteristics. 

j  546.  In  respect  to  their  distribution,  the  Danish 
forms  are — 


DIALKCTS   OF   ENGLISH   LANGUAGE.  887 

At  their  maxlnuini  on  tlic  sea-coast  of  Lincoln.sliire  ; 
i.  e.,  in  the  parts  about  Spills-by. 

Common,  but  less  frequent,  in  Yorkshire,  the  North- 
ern counties  of  Eu^^land,  the  South-eastern  parts  of  Scot- 
land, Lancashire,  [Ormskirk,  llovw-hj),  and  parts  of  South 
Wales  (Orm5-head,  Ten-&y). 

In  Orkney,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland,  tho 
Norse  had  orio-inally  the  same  influence  that  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  had  in  the  south. — See  the  chapter  of  the  Lowland 
Scotch. 

This  explains  the  peculiar  distribution  of  the  Norse 
forms.  Rare,  or  non-existent,  in  central  and  southern 
England,  they  appear  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  island, 
and  on  its  northern  extremity ;  sho^>-ing  that  the  stream 
of  the  Norse  population  -went  round  the  island  rather  than 
across  it. 

§  547.  Next  to  the  search  after  traces  of  the  original 
differences  in  the  speech  of  the  Continental  invaders  of 
Great  Britain,  the  question  as  to  the  origin  of  the  iDritteji 
language  of  England  is  the  most  important. 

Mr.  Guest  has  given  good  reasons  for  believing  it  to 
have  arisen  out  of  a  Mercian,  rather  than  a  AVest-Saxon 
dialect — although  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  the  West- Saxon 
was  the  most  cultivated  form. 

This  is  confirmed  by  the  present  state  of  the  jNIercian 
dialects. 

The  country  about  Huntingdon  and  Stamford  is,  in 
the  mind  of  the  present  writer,  that  part  of  England 
where  provincial  peculiarities  are  at  the  minimum.  This 
may  be  explained  in  various  ways,  of  which  none  is 
preferable  to  the  doctrine,  that  the  dialect  for  those  parts 
represents  the  dialect  out  of  which  the  literary  language 
of  England  became  developed. 

Such  are  the  chief  problems  connected  with  the  study 


388  DIALECTS   OF   ENGLISH   LAXGUAGE. 

of  the  provincial  dialects  of  England ;  the  exhibition  of 
the  methods  applicable  to  theii*  investigation  not  being 
considered  necessary  in  a  work  like  the  present. 

NOTE. 

Tlint  Saxon  was  tlie  British  name  of  the  GermaDic  invaders  of  Great 
Britain  is  certain. — Sep  §  45. 

The  reasons  ■which  induce  me  to  consider  it  as  exclusively  British,  i.  c, 
as  foreign  to  the  Angles,  are  as  follows, — 

a.  No  clear  distinction  has  ever  been  drawn  between,  c.  g.,  an  Angle  of 
Suffolk,  and  a  Saxon  of  Esrscx. 

b.  Tlie  Romans  who  knew,  for  some  parts  at  least,  every  inch  of  the 
land  occupied  by  the  Saxons  of  Germany,  as  long  as  there  is  reason  for 
belie^dug  that  they  took  theii-  names  from  German  sources,  never  use  the 
word  It  is  strange  to  Caesar,  Strabo,  Pliny,  and  Tacitus.  Ptolemy  is  the 
first  who  uses  it 

c.  Ecbert,  who  is  said  to  have  attached  the  name  of  I^ngland,  or  Land 
oi  Angles,  to  South  Britain,  was,  himself,  no  Angle,  but  a  West-Saxon.* 

*  Tills  is  worked  out  more  fully  in  the  "  Germany  of  Tacitus,  with 
EtliEological  Notes,"  by  the  present  author. 


QUESTIONS.  389 


QUESTIONS  OX  PARTS  I\' .  V.  VI.  axd  VII. 


Tart   IV. 

1.  What  is  Johnson's  explanation  of  tlic  word  Etymology?  Into 
what  varieties  does  the  study  fall?  What  is  the  difference  between 
Etymology  and  Syntax  ? 

.,  2.  IIow  far  are  the  following  words  instances  of  gender — boy,  hc-goat, 
actress,  which  ?  Analyze  the  forms  what,  her,  its,  vixen,  spinster,  gander, 
drake.  ' 

3.  How  far  is  there  a  dual  uumhcr  in  the  Gothic  tongues?  "Wliat  is 
the  rule  for  forming  such  a  plural  as  stags  from  stag?  What  are  the  pe- 
culiarities in  monarchs,  cargoes,  keys,  pence,  geese,  children,  women, 
houses,  paths,  leaves?  Of  what  number  are  the  worda  alms,  physics 
news,  riclics  ? 

4.,  To  what  extent  have  we  in  English  a  dative,  an  accusative,  and 
instrotnebtal  case?  Disprove  the  doctrine  that  the  genitive  in  -s  (the 
father's  son)  is  formed  out  of  the  combination  ya^/tcr  his. 

5.  Decline  7ne,  thee,  and  ye. 

6.  How  far  is  there  a  true  reflective  pronoun  in  English? 

I.  What  were  the  original  powers  and  forms  of  she,  her,  it  ?  \VTial 
case  is  hiin  ?  What  is  the  power  and  origin  of  the  in  such  expressions  as 
all  the  more  ?  Decline  he  in  Anglo-Saxon.  Investigate  the  forms  thesa 
and  those,  whose,  what,  whom,  which,  myself,  hijuself,  herself,  such,  every. 

8.  What  is  the  power  (real  or  supposed)  of  the  -er  in  over,  and  in 
either  ? 

9.  Wliat  words  in  the  pi'csent  English  are  explained  by  the  following 
forms — sutiza,  in  Moeso-Gothic,  and  scearpor,  ncah,  yldre,  in  Anglo-Saxon  ? 
Ex])lain  the  forms,  better,  wotsc,  more,  less. 

10.  Analyze  the  words  former,  iiext,  iipmost,  thirty,  streamlet,  sweet' 
heart,  duckling. 

II.  Tvanslata  Ida  tcais  Eopping.     Analyze  the  word  WaJe.i. 

12.  Exliibit  the  extent  to  which  the  noun  partakes  of  the  character 


390  QUESTIONS. 

of  the  verb,  and  vic/vcrsd.     Wliat  were  the  Anglo-Saxon  forms  of,  I  can 
call,  I  begin  to  call  ? 

13.  Investigate  the  forms,  drerlch^  raise,  use  (the  verb),  clothe. 

14.  Thvii  spcakcst.  What  is  the  peculiarity  of  the  form  ?  Wc  loven, 
we  love,  account  for  this. 

•    15.  Thou  ranncst=(tu  cucurristi).     Is  this  an  uuexocptionable  form? 
if  not,  why? 

16.  What  are  the  moods  in  English?  What  the  tenses?  IIow  far 
is  tlie  division  of  verbs'  into  weak  and  strong  tenses  natural?  Account 
for  the  double  forms  swain  and  swum.  Enumerate  the  other  verbs  in  the 
Eanie  class.  Explain  the  forms  taught,  wrought,  ought,  </((/,  "(from  (/o= 
facio),  did  (from  do=valeo),  minded. 

17.  Define  the  term  irregular,  so  as  to  raise  the  number  of  irregular 
verbs,  in  English,  to  more  than  a  hundred.  Define  the  same  tenu,  so 
as  to  reduce  them  to  none.     Explain  tlie  form  could. 

18.  What  is  the  construction  oi  meseems  and  methinks?  Illustrate 
the  future  power  of  be.  Werden  in  German  means  become — in  what 
fonn  does  the  word  appear  in  English  ? 

19.  To  err  is  human, — the  rising  in  the  North.  Explain  these  con- 
Btructions.  Account  for  the  second  -r  in  forlorn ;  and  for  the  y  in  y- 
clcped. 

20.  Explain  the  difference  between  composite  and  de-composite  worda, 
t,  ae  and  improper  compounds.     Analyze  the  word  Jiighiingale, 

21.  IIow  far  are  adverbs  inflected?  Distinguish  between  a  prepo- 
sition and  a  conjunction. 

22.  Explain  the  forms  there,  thence,  yonder,  and  anon. 

23.  What  part  of  speech  is  mine  ? 

24.  vVliat  is  the  probable  origin  of  the  -d  in  such  preterites  as 
call-c(?. 


Taet  V. 


1.  Explam  the  terms  Syntax,  Ellipsis,  Pleonasm,  Zeugma,  Pros  to 
iemaino77ienon.  Apposition,  and  Convertibility,  giving  iUuatrations  of  each. 

2.  "WHiat  is  the  government  of  adjectives  ? 
3    "Wliat  is  the  construction  in — 

a.  Eob  me  the  Exchequer. — SoAKSrEARE. 

b.  ilount  ye  on  horseback. 

c.  His  mother. 


QUESTIONS.  391 

d.  If  the  salt  have  lost  liis  savour. 

e.  ilyself  is  weak. 

f.  This  is  mine. 

4.  What  arc  the  concords  betweeu  the  rehitive  and  antecedent  f 
How  for  is,  whom  do  they  say  that  I  am,  an  exceptionable  ex[)re8sion  ? 

5.  Etcoclcs  and  Polyniccs  killed  each  other.  What  is  the  construction 
here  ?  lis  se  battaicnt,  Vun  Vaidrc — lis  se  battaient,  let  uns  les  autrcs. 
Translate  thofte  two  seit^Jices  into  English,  My  wife  and  little  ones  are 
tvcll.  Wliat  is  the  origin  of  tlic  Avord  07ies  here?  It  was  those  who 
spoke.  These  was  those  who  spoke.  Why  is  one  of  those  expressions  cor- 
rect, and  the  other  incorrect  ? 

0.   What  is  the  diU'ereuce  between — 

a.  The  secretary  and  treasurer, 
and 
T!ie  secretary  and  the  treasurer! 

What  is  that  between — 
The  first  two — 

and 
The  two  first? 

7.  What  is  the  construction  of — 

He  sleeps  the  sleep  of  the  righteous  ? 

8.  Whether  do  you  say — It  is  I  your  master  who  command  you,  or 
It  is  I  your  master  who  commands  you  ? 

9.  Barbican  it  hight.     Translate  this  into  Latin. 

10.  Explain  in  full  the  following  constructions — 

a.  I  have  ridden  a  horse. 

b.  I  am  to  blame. 

c.  I  am  beaten. 

d.  A  part  of  the  body. 

e.  All  fled  but  John. 

11.  Wl)at  is  meant  \>y  i\iQ  Succession  of  Tenses?  Show  the  logical 
necessity  of  it 

12.  Or  hearst  thou  rather  pure  ethereal  stream, 
Whose  fountiiin  who  can  tell  ? — ^Iilton. 

Gire  the  meaning  of  this  passage,  and  explain  the  figure  of  speech 
e.iihibited  in  the  words  in  Italics. 

13.  The  door  being  open  the  steed  was  stolen. — In  what  case  is 
door  ? 


392  QUESTIONS. 

Paut  YI. 

1.  The  way  was  lung,  flic  wind  was  cold. 
]'].\prcs3  the  metre  of  this  sylnbolioall3^ 

2.  Define  rhyme. 

3.  Give  inshmccs  of  Service  tncirr,  Blank  heroics,  Alexandrines. 

Taut  VII. 

1.  How  far  do  the  present  dialects  of  England  coincide  with  the 
jiart.s,  that  took  their  names  from  the  Ayifjlcs  and  the  Saxons  respec- 
tively. 

2.  What  traces  of  Danish  or  Norse  occuj)ancy  do  wc  find  in  local 
nnmea  I 


NOTES. 


*  The  immediate  authority  for  these  descents,  dates,  and  localitiesi  u 
Sharon  Turner.  They  are  nearly  the  same  as  those  "which  are  noticed  in 
Mr.  Kemble's  Saxons  in  England.  In  the  former  writer,  however,  tliey 
are  given  as  historical  facts ;  in  the  latter  they  are  subjected  to  criticism, 
and  considered  as  exceptionable. 

*  It  is  from  Beda  that  the  cun-ent  opinions  as  to  the  details  of  tho 
Anglo-Saxon  invasion  are  taken ;  especially  the  threefold  division  into 
Angles,  Saxons,  and  Jutes.  These  migrations  were  so  large  and  numeron? 
that  the  original  country  of  the  Angles  was  left  a  desert.  The  distributiop 
of  the  three  divisions  over  the  different  parts  of  England  was  alsr 
Beda's. 

The  work  of  this  important  writer — the  great  luminary  of  early  Eng 
land — ^is  the  Historia  JEcclesiastica,  a  title  which  prepares  us  for  a  great 
preponderance  of  the  ecclesiastieal  over  the  secular  history. 

Now  Beda's  date  was  the  middle  of  the  eighth  century. 

And  his  locality  was  the  monastery  of  "Wearmouth,  in  the  county  of 
Dui'ham. 

Both  of  those  facts  must  be  borno  in  mind  when  we  consider  the  value 
of  his  authority,  i.  c,  his  means  of  knowing,  as  determined  by  the  con- 
ditions of  time  and  place. 

Christianity  was  introduced  among  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  Kent  A.n. 
597.  For  the  times  between  them  and  a.d.  740,  we  have  in  Mr.  Kem- 
ble's Codex  Diplomatlcits  eighty-five  charters,  all  in  Latin,  and  most  of 
tliem  of  imcertaln  authenticity.  They  are  chiefly  grants  of  different 
kings  of  Kent,  "Wessex,  the  Hwiccas,  Mercia,  and  Northumberland,  a  few 
being  of  bishops. 

^  GUdas  was  a  Brithh  ooclesiastic,  as  Bi'.la   v,a-<  an    EngJhh   one. 

18* 


394  ,  .^\  KOTES. 

His  locality  was  North ^Walos:  hij  time  earlier  tliaa  BcJa's  l)^'  pcrliaiTS 
CHIC  liumlrod  ycara.    . 

lie  states  that  he  was  boiu  the  year  of  the  puf/na  Badonica,  currently 
called  the  Battle  of  Balk 

Now  ft  chronological  table  called  Annalen  Cambrcnscs,  places  that 
event  within  one  hundred  years  of  the  supposed  lauding  of  Ilengist. 

But  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  this  to  be  a  cotcmporary  entry. 
Ilcnce,  all  that  can  be  safely  said  of  Gildas  is  that  he  was  about  as  far 
fcmoved  from  the  seat  of  the  Germanic  invasions,  in  locality,  as  Beda, 
whilst  in  point  of  time  he  was  nearer. 

As  a  writer  he  is  far  inferior,  being  pre-einincutly  verbose,  vairue, 
and  indefiuite. 

Gildas,  as  far  as  he  states  facts  at  all,  gives  the  Br'dhJi  account  cf 
the  conquest. 

No  other  documents  have  come  down  to  our  time. 
Beda's  own  authorities — as  we  learn  from  his  introduction — were 
certain  of  the  most  learned  bishops  and  abbots  of  his  eotemporarics,  of 
whom  he  sought  special  information  as  to  the  antiquities  of  their  own 
establishments.  Of  coteraj^orary  writers,  in  the  way  of  authority,  there 
is  no  mention. 

For  the  times  between  the  "accredited  date  of  Ilengist  and  Horsa's 
landing  (a.p;  449)  and  a.d.  597  (a  period  of  about  one  hundred  and  fifty 
years)  the  only  authorities  are  a  few  quotations  from  Solinus,  Gildas,  and 
a  Legendary  Life  of  St.  Germanus." — Saxons  in  Engl.  i.  27. 

*  This  account  is  from  Jornandes,  who  is  generally  considered  as 
the  chief  repertory  of  the  traditions  respecting  the  Gothic  populations. 
lie  lived  about  a.d.  530.  Tlie  Gepidae  were  said  to  be  the  lag(jards  of 
the  migration,  and  the  vessel  which  carried  them  to  have  been  left  be- 
hind: and  as  gcpanta  in  their  language  meant  slow,  their  name  is  taken 
therefrom. 

*  Widukind  was  a  monk  of  Corvey  in  Flanders,  who  wrote  the  Ec- 
clesiastical History  of  his  monastery. 

*  Geoffry  of  Monmouth,  like  Gildas,  is  a  British  authority.  Ilis  date 
was  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  Tlie  Welsh  traditions  form  the  staple  of 
Geoffrj-'s  work,  for  which  it  is  the  great  repertory. 

'  The  date  of  this  was  the  reign  of  Marcus  Antoninus.  Its  place, 
the  Danubian  provinces  of  Rha;tia,  and  Pannonia.  It  was  carried  on  by 
the  GeiTnans  of  the  frontier  or  march. — from  whence  the  name — in  al- 
liance with  the  Jazyges,  who  were  undoubtedly  Slavonic,  and  the  Quadi, 
who  were  probably  so.  Its  details  are  obscure — the  chief  authority 
being  Dio  Cassius. 

*  The  reign  of  Yalcntinian  was  from  a.p.  365  to  a.d.  375. 


NOTES. 

•  Tlie  date  of  this  lias  been  variously  placciviii^jDj  -i;;8,  and  lotweeii 
A.D.  395  and  a.d  -107.     Either  i3  earlier  than  a.d.^^SQ  / 

'"  The  Saxou  Chronicle  consists  of  a  series  of  entni^-^om  tiie  earliest 
times  to  the  reign  of  King  Stephen,  each  under  its  ycarTTtitr-ycar  of 
the  Anglo-Saxon  invasion  being  the  \isual  one,  i.e.,  a.d.  4-19.  The  value 
of  such  a  work  depends  upon  the  extent  to  which  the  chronological  en- 
tries are  cotemporaneous  with  the  events  noticed.  "WTiere  this  is  the 
case,  the  statement  is  of  the  highest  historical  value ;  where,  however, 
it  is  merely  taken  from  some  earlier  authority,  or  from  a  tradition,  it 
loses  the  character  of  a  register,  and  becomes  merely  a  series  of  dates — 
correct  or  incorrect  as  the  ease  may  be.  "Wliere  the  Anglo-Saxon  Chron- 
icle really  begins  to  be  a  cotempor.ineou.'i  register  is  uncertain — all  that  is 
certain  being  that  it  is  so  for  the  latest,  and  is  not  so  fur  earliest  entries. 
Tlie  notices  in  question  come  under  the  former  class.  The  Anglo-Saxon 
Chronicle  had  been  edited  by  the  Master  of  Trinity  College,  Oxford  (Dr. 
Ingrain),  and  analyzed  by  iliss  Gurney. 

"  Asserius  was  a  learned  Welsh  ecclesiastic  who  was  invited  by 
King  Alfred  into  'VTessex,  and  employed  by  that  king  as  one  of  his 
associates  and  assistants  in  civilizing  and  instructing  his  subjects. 
Several  works  are  mentioned  as  having  been  written  by  Asserius,  but 
the  only  one  extant  is  his  history  of  King  Alfi'ed,  which  is  a  chron- 
icle of  vai-ious  events  between  the  year  of  Alfred's  birth,  a.d.  849,  to 
A.D.  889. 

Asserius  is  supposed  to  have  died  Bishop  of  Sherborne,  a.d.  910. 

"  The  compounds  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  word  icare=occupants,  inhabi- 
tants, are  too  numerous  to  leave  any  doubt  as  to  tliis,  and  several  other, 
derivations.  Cant-ware==Cant-icol(E=people  of  Kent:  Hwic-ware==' 
Hviccas=the  people  of  parts  of  "Worcestei-shire,*  Glostershh-e,  and  (to 
judge  from  the  name)  of  War-icickihive  also. 

"  The  Annales  Saxonici,  or  Saxon  Chrouicles,  embrace  the  history  of 
Britain,  between  the  landing  of  Csesar  and  the  accession  of  Henry  II. 
They  are  evidently  the  work  of  various  and  successive  writers,  who 
w^ere  Saxon  ecclesiastics.  But  nothing  certain  can  be  affirmed  of  the 
authors  of  their  respective  portions. — See  Xote  10. 

14  See  Kote  2. 

"  Adam  of  Bremen  was  a  Elinor  Canon  of  the  Cathedral  of  Bremen, 
about  the  years  1067 — 1077.  He  travelled  in  Denmark,  and  was  in 
great  favoui*  with  King  Sweyn  of  that  country.  He  wrote  an  Ecclesias- 
tical History  of  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  the  North,  to  which  he 
appended  a  description  of  the  geography,  population,  and  archcEology  rif 
Denmark  and  the  neighbouring  countries. 

*  Preserved  in  the  name  of  the  town  "Wick-war. 


396  IsOTES. 

■*  Ethel  ward  was  an  Anglo-Saxon  noLlenian,  who  wrote  a  cliroiiiclt 
of  cvcntd  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  death  of  King  Edgar, 
A.I).  875. 

"  The  following  ia  a  •specimen  of  the  Frisian  of  Gysbert  Jajiicx,  in 
metre.  It  is  ])art  of  a  rustic  Bong,  supposed  to  be  sung  by  a  peasant  on 
Ilia  return  from  a  wedding  feast.     Date  about  a.d.  1650. 

"  Swiet,  ja  swiet,  is't  ocr  'c  miete, 
'T  boaskiere  foar  e  jongc  lie, 
Krefticli  swiet  is't,  sizz  ik  jiette, 
As  it  gict  mei  alders  rie. 
Mai  oars  tiget  'et  to  'u  pleach, 
As  ik  oan  myn  geafeunt  seach." 

Translation  of  the  same  from  Bosworth's  Anglo-Saxon  Dicllcnary, 
p.  Ixxiii. 

"Sweet,  yes,  sweet  is  over  {beyotid)  measure, 
ITie  marrying  for  tbe  young  lede  (j)eo2yle) ; 
Most  sweet  is  it,  I  say  yet  {once  more), 
"VVTien  (as)  it  goes  witli  the  rede  {co^msel)  of  the  elders. 
But  otherwise  it  tends  to  a  plague, 
As  I  saw  on  {hy  the  example  of)  my  village  fellow." 

'*  Of  the  early  constitution  of  states  of  East  Friesland,  we  have 
a  remarkable  illustration  in  the  old  Frisian  Laws.  These  are  in  the 
native  Frisian  tongue,  and,  except  that  they  represent  republican 
rather  than  monarchical  institutions,  are  similar  in  form,  in  spirit,  to 
the  Saxon. 

'^  The  great  blow  against  the  sovereignty  of  Rome,  and  the  one 
which  probably  prevented  Germany  from  becoming  a  Roman  province,. 
was  struck  by  the  Cheruscan  Armmius  against  QuintUius  Varus,  in  the 
reign  of  Augustus.  The  date  of  the  organized  insurrection  of  Arminius 
was  A.D.  9;  the  place,  the  neighbourhood  of  Herford,  or  Engern,  in 
Westphalia.  Drawn  into  an  inpracticable  part  of  the  country,  the 
troops  of  Varus  were  suddenly  attacked  and  cut  to  pieces — consisting  of 
more  than  three  legions.  "  Never  was  victory  more  decisive,  never  was 
the  liberation  of  an  oppressed  people  more  instantaneous  and  complete. 
Tliroughout  Germany  the  Roman  garrisons  were  assailed  and  cut  off 
and,  within  a  few  weeks  after  Varus  had  fallen,  the  German  soil  was 
freed  from  the  foot  of  an  invader. 

"Had  Arminius  been  supine  or  unsuccessful,  our  Germanic  ancestors 
would  have  been  enslaved  or  extei'minated  in  their  original  seats  along 
the  Evder  and  the  Elbe.     Tliis  island  would  never  have  borne  the  name  of 


NOTES.  397 

England,  and  we,  this  great  English  nation,  -whose  race  and  language  are 
now  overriinuiug  the  earth,  from  one  end  of  it  to  the  other,  would  have 
been  utterly  cut  off  from  existence."  * 

*•  Ileliand  is  the  gerund  from  ftelia7i=hcal' and  means  (he  Healer  or 
Saviour.  It  is  the  name  of  an  old  Saxon  poem,  in  alliterative  metre,  of 
the  tenth  or  eleventh  century,  in  the  dialect  supposed  to  have  belonged 
to  the  parts  about  Essen,  Cleves,  and  Munster  in  Westphalia.  It  is  a 
sort  of  Gospel  Harmony,  or  Life  of  Christ,  taken  from  the  Gospels.  It 
has  been  edited  by  Schmeller. 

''  Ilildubrand  and  Ilathubrant,  father  and  sou,  arc  two  legendary 
heroes  belonging  to  that  cycle  of  German  fiction  of  which  Thcodoric  of 
Verona  is  the  centre.  A  fragment  containing  an  account  of  their  hostile 
meeting,  being  mutually  unknown,  in  alUterative  metre,  represents  the 
fictional  poetry  of  the  old  Saxons  in  the  same  way  (though  not  to  the 
same  extent)  that  the  IIeliau(>  represents  their  sacred  poetry.  The 
"Ilildubrand  and  Ilathubrant"  have  been  edited  by  Grimm. 

"  In  a  language  which  for  a  long  time  was  considered  to  be  the 
Dutch  of  Holland  in  its  oldest  known  form,  there  is  an  imperfect  transla- 
tion of  the  Psiilms ;  referred  by  the  best  writers  on  the  subject  to  the 
reign  of  Charlemagne,  and  thence  called  the  Carolinian  Psalms.  The 
best  text  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  a  Dutch  periodical,  the  Taalkundig 
Magazijn. 

^'  Beoimlf  is  by  far  the  most  considerable  poem,  not  only  in  Ani^lo- 
Saxon,  but  in  any  old  Gothic  tongue.  It  has  been  admirably  edited  and 
translated  by  Mr.  Kemble.  The  subject  is  the  account  of  Beowulf,  an 
Angle  hero —  Angle  but  not  English,  as  the  scene  of  the  poem  is  on  the 
Continent.  In  its  present  foi-m  it  shows  traces  of  the  revision  of  some 
Christian  -wi'iter :  the  basis,  however,  of  its  subject,  and  the  manners  it 
describes,  are  essentially  Pagan.  The  most  remarkable  featiu-e  in  the 
poem  is  the  fact  that  no  allusion  is  made  to  England — so  that,  Anr/lo- 
Saxon  as  the  work  is — it  belongs  to  the  Anglo-Saxons  of  Germany  before 
they  became  English. 

**  A  Gospel  Harmony  translated  from  the  one  of  Tatiiin,  exists  in  a 
dialect  too  little  purely  High  German,  to  pass  absolutely  as  such,  yet  less 
Low  German  than  the  Dutch  of  Holland.  This  belongs  to  the  Middle 
Rhine,  and  is  called  Frank. 

-'  The  Alemannic  is  the  German  of  the  Upper  Rhine ;  the  dialect 
out  of  which  the  Bavarian  and   Swiss  grew.     Its  chief  specimens  occur 


*  "The    Fifteen    Decisive    Battles    of    the    World,"   by    Professo» 
Creasv. 


o93  NOTES 

a.  Tlie  Glonnes  of  Kcro — 

b.  The  I'snlms  by  a  monk  iiaincil  Xotkcr. 

c.  A  life  of  Amio  of  Coloi^iic. 

d.  Tlie  Song  of  Soloinwi,  by  Willrrani. 
r.  Mii^rpilli,  .in  iillitenitive  poem. 

/.  ICrixt,  ft  Life  of  Christ,  by  Otfonl,  and  olhei-s  less  important. 
Most  of  these  (alon^  willi    Tatiau),  are    to   bo   found    in   Schiller's 
77u:saurus. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 

AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL   BE   ASSESSED    FOR    FAILURE  TO   RETURN 
THIS    BOOK    ON    THE    DATE    DUE.    THE    PENALTY 
WILL   INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY     AND     TO     $1.00     ON     THE     SEVENTH     DAY 
OVERDUE. 

JAN    161940 

mi  10  ts47 

iSOcl'SffJG 

;-.-'r-'-  ;  n 

[- 

l^^M  ^^  IBd/ 

^^^^'^-'!  :.      ,     r,> 

jA/J               J3 

tf 

*  f  r'          ■ 

LD  21-100m-7,'39(402s 

n 

ItaHI^^HH 

■■■r^  Ik 

YB  01638 


